Effect of age and gender in the control of elbow flexion movements

In previous studies of rapid elbow movements in young healthy men, characteristic task-dependent changes in the patterns of muscle activation when movement speed or distance was varied have been reported. In the present study, the authors investigated whether age or gender is associated with changes in the patterns of muscle activity previously reported in young men. Arm movements of 10 healthy older and 10 healthy younger participants (5 men and 5 women in each group) were studied. Surface electromyograms (EMGs) from agonist (biceps) and antagonist (triceps) muscles, kinematic and kinetic parameters, as well as anthropometric and strength measures were recorded. All 4 groups of participants showed similar task- (distance or speed) dependent changes in biphasic EMG activity. Similar modulation of the initial rate of rise of the EMG, integrated agonist and antagonist EMG activity, as well as their relative timing were observed in all 4 groups. Those results suggest that older individuals of both genders retain the control strategies for elbow movements used by young individuals. Despite the qualitative similarities in the patterns of muscle activation, the men moved more quickly than the women, and younger participants moved more quickly than older participants. Those performance differences could not be explained in terms of differences in body size and strength alone.     

Effect of Age and Gender in the Control of Elbow Flexion Movements

In previous studies of rapid elbow movements in young healthy men, characteristic task-dependent changes in the patterns of muscle activation when movement speed or distance was varied have been reported. In the present study, the authors investigated whether age or gender is associated with changes in the patterns of muscle activity previously reported in young men. Arm movements of 10 healthy older and 10 healthy younger participants (5 men and 5 women in each group) were studied. Surface electromyograms (EMGs) from agonist (biceps) and antagonist (triceps) muscles, kinematic and kinetic parameters, as well as anthropometric and strength measures were recorded. All 4 groups of participants showed similar task- (distance or speed) dependent changes in biphasic EMG activity. Similar modulation of the initial rate of rise of the EMG, integrated agonist and antagonist EMG activity, as well as their relative timing were observed in all 4 groups. Those results suggest that older individuals of both genders retain the control strategies for elbow movements used by young individuals. Despite the qualitative similarities in the patterns of muscle activation, the men moved more quickly than the women, and younger participants moved more quickly than older participants. Those performance differences could not be explained in terms of differences in body size and strength alone.     

Gender differences in the variability of lower extremity kinematics during treadmill locomotion

The authors examined whether there were gender differences in the variability of basic gait parameters (stride length, stride time) and 3-dimensional (3D) rotations of the hip, knee, and ankle joints during treadmill locomotion of 18 men and 15 women at 4 different gait speeds (walking at 5 km/hr, running at 8, 10, and 12 km/hr). The authors used 2-way analyses of variance to assess the data. No gender differences in the mean values or variability of basic gait parameters were detected. However, the women exhibited lower variability than did the men for 6 individual joint rotations: (a) transverse plane rotations of the ankle joint at 8, 10, and 12 km/hr, (b) transverse plane rotations of the hip and knee joints at 12 km/hr, and (c) sagittal plane rotations of the ankle joint at 12 km/hr. When collapsed across all 3D lower extremity rotations, the data showed that the women had lower variability than did the men at 12 km/hr. Reduced variability may result in more localized mechanical stress on anatomical structures and could therefore be a risk factor for injury in women at high gait speeds. The results also suggested that gender differences in variability may not be consistent across different levels of the motor system.     

By your attributions you shall be known: Consequences of attributional accounts for professional and gender identities

We demonstrate the power of a situated identity perspective for understanding the different attributional patterns of women and men in an academic setting and their differential experiences in the workplace. Two explanations for the gender difference found in attributions of success are considered. This difference may be due either to different identities being attributed to men and women employing the same explanations for success and failure, or to the inconsistency between actions that confirm a professional (academic) identity and women's gender identity. The results of this survey of senior social science faculty men support the latter explanation but not the former. An editorial acceptance was seen as more professional but less feminine than a rejection. In the eyes of senior colleagues, the modest account of success, typical of women academics, enhances femininity but detracts from professionalism. The self-serving account typical of men makes the offerer appear less feminine but more professional. Thus in their situated identity claims, successful academic women, but not men, must choose between their professional and gender identities. Despite the movement of women into university social science positions, the role of academic has a masculine face.Order of authors was determined by a coin toss.     

Gender differences in episodic memory

The relationship between gender and memory has been largely neglected by research, despite occasional studies reporting gender differences in episodic memory performance. The present study examined potential gender differences in episodic memory, semantic memory, primary memory, and priming. Five hundred thirty women and 470 men, randomly sampled from the city of Umeå, Sweden, 35–80 years of age, participated in the study. There were no differences between men and women with regard to age or education, or on a measure of global intellectual functioning. As has been demonstrated previously, men outperformed women on a visuospatial task and women outperformed men on tests of verbal fluency. In addition, the results demonstrated that women consistently performed at a higher level than did men on the episodic memory tasks, although there were no differences between men and women on the tasks assessing semantic memory, primary memory, or priming. The women’s higher level of performance on the episodic memory tasks could not be fully explained by their higher verbal ability.     

Gender differences and developmental change in externalizing disorders from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study

Using data from over 1,000 male and female twins participating in the Minnesota Twin Family Study, the authors examined developmental change, gender differences, and genetic and environmental contributions to the symptom levels of four externalizing disorders (adult antisocial behavior, alcohol dependence, nicotine dependence, and drug dependence) from ages 17 to 24. Both men and women increased in symptoms for each externalizing disorder, with men increasing at a greater rate than women, such that a modest gender gap at age 17 widened to a large one at age 24. Additionally, a mean-level gender difference on a latent Externalizing factor could account for the mean-level gender differences for the individual disorders. Biometric analyses revealed increasing genetic variation and heritability for men but a trend toward decreasing genetic variation and increasing environmental effects for women. Results illustrate the importance of gender and developmental context for symptom expression and the utility of structural models to integrate general trends and disorder-specific characteristics.     

Stress exposure and affective modulation of aggressive behavior in men and women

To study differences in the effects of stress exposure and affective responding on aggression in men and women, the authors examined the effects of an acute stressor (air blast) on subsequent aggressive behavior, measured as the intensity of shocks men and women delivered to a putative employee. The authors measured participants' affective responding using the startle reflex. Results showed that although men and women did not differ in their startle responses to the actual stressor, high stress led to contrasting patterns of subsequent aggressive behavior. Women under high stress responded with less aggression than women under low stress, whereas men exposed to high stress exhibited increases in aggression relative to those under low stress. Affective responding during the stressor differentially modulated aggression in men and women: Startle responses predicted increasing levels of aggression in men and less aggression in women. These findings suggest that although men and women show similar basic affective processing in response to stressors, the behavioral profiles associated with stress differ in men and women. These findings have implications for understanding gender differences in the prevalence of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology.     

Gender barriers in the legal profession: Implications for career development of female law students

To draw attention to the changes occurring in the legal profession, in general, and in law school, in particular, this analytical discussion aims at examining some of the key issues pertinent to the life career development of female students in law schools. The authors explore gender‐related psychosocial aspects, such as the differences between the career patterns of men and women. The applicability to women of key tenets from several career development theories is considered, and several specific career counseling implications and strategies, aimed at addressing the unique needs of women studying in a law school environment, are provided.     

Gender differences and similarities in sex and love

One's attitudes toward love and sexuality are influenced by many factors, including gender. To explore the role of gender (and other variables) in participants' attitudinal orientations toward love and sexuality, data were collected in the United States at three time points (1988, 1992, 1993), resulting in a total sample of 1,090 participants. Data analyses showed gender differences in both sexual attitudes and love. Men were more sexually permissive than women (consistent with previous research), although women and men similarly endorsed other aspects of sexuality, including sex as an emotional experience. Men and women differed on several relationship variables (e.g., women were more oriented to friendship-based love, and men to game-playing love). However, correlational analyses showed many similar patterns for women and men. These findings underline the need to consider both gender differences and similarities in sex and love within intimate relationships.     

Gender Differences in Undergraduates' Body Esteem: The Mediating Effect of Objectified Body Consciousness and Actual/Ideal Weight Discrepancy

Three hundred twenty-seven undergraduatemostlyEuropean American women and men were surveyed totest whether feminist theoryabout how women come to viewtheir bodies as objects to be watched (Objectified Body Consciousness or OBC) can be useful inexplaining gender differences in body esteem. The OBCscales (McKinley & Hyde, 1996) were demonstrated tobe distinct dimensions with acceptable reliabilities for men. Relationships between bodysurveillance, body shame, and body esteem were strongerfor women than for men. Women had higher surveillance,body shame, and actual/ideal weight discrepancy, andlower body esteem than did men. Multiple regressionanalysis found that gender differences in body esteemwere no longer significant when OBC was entered into theequation, supporting feminist theory about women's body experience.     

Possible contributors to the gender differences in alcohol use and problems

Research on alcohol use and problems has demonstrated a much higher rate of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) among men compared with women. The authors review the most frequently researched biological and psychosocial factors that may play a role in the gender differences in alcohol use and problems. Among the biological factors, women might carry a lower genetic risk for AUDs and tend to suffer more negative biological consequences from drinking as compared with men. Regarding psychosocial factors, men appear to be more likely than women to manifest certain risk factors for alcohol use and problems (e.g., fewer perceived social sanctions for drinking, positive expectancies for alcohol use, personality traits such as impulsivity) and have fewer protective factors. Although these findings have helped to explain some of the gender differences in alcohol use and problems, there are inconsistencies in the literature. Additionally, many studie may not have enough statistical power to detect gender differences. The authors suggest that the biological and social consequences of alcohol abuse for women may be especially potent protective factors against AUDs and discuss the possibility of public health campaigns developed on the basis of this idea.     

Emotional Constriction and Risk for Posttraumatic Stress: The Roles of Trauma History and Gender

Research suggests there are qualitative differences in emotionality across gender, with men being more emotionally constrictive than women. Constrictive emotionality has consistently been linked to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and because men are generally more emotionally constrictive, one could infer they are at increased risk for PTSD. However, research demonstrates that twice as many women are diagnosed with PTSD than men. In an undergraduate sample, men reported significantly greater emotional constriction, but significantly less posttraumatic stress severity in comparison to women. The gender differences in emotional constriction disappeared in a subsample of students who endorsed experiencing an upsetting event. Emotional constriction mediated the relationship between trauma and posttraumatic stress severity, although it was a stronger mediator for women than men.     

Patterns of Violent Relationships, Psychological Distress, and Marital Satisfaction in a National Sample of Men and Women

This paper examined six patterns of violent relationships (severe and mild victimization, perpetration, and mutual violence) and their associations with psychosocial outcomes in men and women (N = 3,519) using data from the National Comorbidity Survey. Violence patterns most frequently reported included mild and severe violence performed by both relationship partners. Some gender differences in frequency of patterns emerged. Main results showed gender differences and some similarities in associations between violence patterns and negative psychosocial outcomes. Women’s victimization, regardless of severity, was more strongly related to psychosocial outcomes than men’s. Yet, additional findings revealed gender similarities, with both men and women affected by mutual violence. Post hoc analyses further suggested that some individuals were satisfied and had relatively low distress, despite violence.     

Quantitative information presentation and gender: an interaction effect.

The authors investigated whether performance on mathematical test items would be influenced by an interaction between presentation format and gender. One hundred fourteen students in a management accounting course were randomly assigned either to a tabular format or to a graphics format. There were significant main effects for gender and presentation format; men outperformed women, and the subjects who received the tabular format outperformed the subjects who received the graphics format. A significant interaction supported the existence of a conditional relationship between performance on mathematical test items and presentation format. This relationship varied as a function of gender (symmetry permits the interchange of presentation format and gender). Simple effects for the interaction determined that the women who received the graphics presentation did not perform as well as their male counterparts, or as well as other women and men who received the tabular format. The results of this study indicate that presentation format is an important consideration in gender differences for mathematics performance.     

Gender differences in the age-changing relationship between instrumentality and family contact in emerging adulthood

Data from the Children in the Community Transitions Study were used to examine gender differences in the impact of family contact on the development of finance and romance instrumentality from ages 17 to 27 years. Family contact decreased among both men and women across emerging adulthood, although it decreased more rapidly in men than in women. Both finance and romance instrumentality increased for men and women across emerging adulthood. The growth rate did not differ between men and women in either domain, although men tended to be characterized by higher levels of instrumentality than women. There were noteworthy gender differences in the impact of family contact on the development of instrumentality. At age 17, family contact was negatively associated with instrumentality for both men and women; at age 27, the impact of family contact on instrumentality was less negative for women and was positive for men.     

On Margot O;apos;Toole and the Baltimore Case: A Personal Note on the Evolution of My Involvement

Although gender differences in attitudes toward animal research have been reported in the literature for some time, exploration into the nature of these differences has received less attention. This article examines gender differences in responses to a survey of attitudes toward the use of animals in research. The survey was completed by college students and consisted of items intended to tap different issues related to the animal research debate. Results indicated that women were more likely than men to support tenets of the animal protection movement. Likewise, women were more likely than men to favor increased restrictions on animal use and were more concerned than men about the suffering of research animals. Analysis of item contents suggested that women endorsed items reflecting a general caring for animals, were more willing than men to make personal sacrifices such as giving up meat and medical benefits in an effort to protect animals, and were more likely than men to question the use of animals in research on scientific grounds. Men, on the other hand, tended to emphasize the potential benefits arising from the use of animals in research.     

Gender differences in attitudes toward animal research

Although gender differences in attitudes toward animal research have been reported in the literature for some time, exploration into the nature of these differences has received less attention. This article examines gender differences in responses to a survey of attitudes toward the use of animals in research. The survey was completed by college students and consisted of items intended to tap different issues related to the animal research debate. Results indicated that women were more likely than men to support tenets of the animal protection movement. Likewise, women were more likely than men to favor increased restrictions on animal use and were more concerned than men about the suffering of research animals. Analysis of item contents suggested that women endorsed items reflecting a general caring for animals, were more willing than men to make personal sacrifices such as giving up meat and medical benefits in an effort to protect animals, and were more likely than men to question the use of animals in research on scientific grounds. Men, on the other hand, tended to emphasize the potential benefits arising from the use of animals in research.     

Gender and ethnic differences in sexual attitudes at a Hispanic-serving university

The authors studied sexual attitudes in 328 university students from 10 undergraduate classes at a Hispanic-serving university near the Texas-Mexico border. Men (n = 128) and women (n = 199) rated their level of agreement with 38 items on a revised sexuality questionnaire. There were 283 self-identified Hispanic students and 44 self-identified non-Hispanic students in the sample. For the most part, these students agreed with one another, although there were statistically significant differences, with women being less permissive or more sex negative than men were on items relating to oral sex, premarital intercourse, love and sex, masturbation, Playboy magazine, and pornography. For the entire sample, 26 of the 38 items showed statistically significant gender differences. For Hispanics only, 23 of the 38 items showed statistically significant differences, with gender differences those of the sample as whole. There were 8 statistically significant differences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic students, with Hispanic students tending to be more conservative. The authors discuss findings that are contradictory to D. M. Buss's (1999, 2000) evolutionary psychology jealousy theory, namely that women in the present study were more jealous than men were on the sexual intercourse item.     

Are there gender differences in verbal and visuospatial working-memory resources?

Whereas women generally outperform men in episodic-memory tasks, little is known as to how the genders compare with respect to basic working-memory operations. In reference to Baddeley's (1986) model, the present study searched for possible gender differences in terms of accuracy (but not speed) of working-memory processes. Men and women completed series of working-memory tasks respectively involving verbal and visuospatial information, as well as a double-span task involving both classes of information. Control measures included verbal fluency and mental rotation tasks in which gender differences are frequently obtained. In these tasks, the results showed several of the expected gender contrasts. However, men and women were not found to differ significantly in any type of working memory save in the double-span task where women surpassed men. The patterns of task intercorrelation were largely similar in both genders. Discussion emphasises the manifestation, based on the present exploration, of an almost identical working-memory architecture in men and women.