Normative Influences on Secondary Disturbance: The Role of Social Expectancies

A “new wave” within psychotherapy has introduced the concept of acceptance into people's emotional repertoires. Accepting unpleasant emotional states has been demonstrated as an important pathway towards reducing secondary disturbances and improving emotional and psychological functioning. What is often overlooked, however, is whether this move towards acceptance is reinforced within the social and cultural contexts in which people experience their emotional states. Our research has begun to explore the contribution that normative influences make to secondary disturbance, specifically the perception that feeling happy is a desired state, and that experiencing and expressing negative emotions is undesirable and unacceptable to others. We review evidence here that these perceived “social expectancies” are associated with increased negative emotionality and depression, and reduce well‐being. Furthermore, we highlight that the effects of social expectancies are more apparent in Australia than Japan, consistent with the view that a higher premium is placed on happiness within Australia. We also review experimental evidence that social messages that reinforce these social expectancies serve to increase secondary disturbances. The implications of taking a social perspective on emotion regulation and dysfunction, and specifically implications for promoting happiness and acceptance in the field, are discussed.     

Grape Expectations: The Role of Alcohol Expectancies in the Understanding and Treatment of Problem Drinking

Although research into alcohol expectancies is reasonably well established, there is scant empirical evidence to directly relate such expectancies to the treatment of problem drinking. Consistent evidence from alcohol expectancy studies indicates that problem drinkers hold clusters of strongly positive beliefs regarding alcohol, in particular perceiving their drinking as a way of coping with specific skills deficits. However the precise relationship between such beliefs and treatment has not yet been established. The research developments needed to more fully elucidate the role that alcohol expectancies play in the treatment of problem drinking are discussed.     

Social Anxiety and Specificity of Positive Alcohol Expectancies: Preliminary Findings

This preliminary study examined the relationship between social anxiety and specificity of positive alcohol outcome expectancies (AOE) in a community sample of 62 drinking adults. The sample was divided into subsets of socially anxious (n = 17) and nonsocially anxious (n = 45) men and women. The Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire (DEQ) and Alcohol Expectancies in Social Evaluative Situations Scale (AESES) were used to determine if groups differed in the general positive AOE they hold, or only in AOE specific to social situations. ANOVAs revealed that socially anxious individuals had greater positive AOE specific to social situations (DEQ—Assertion scale and AESES) than nonsocially anxious individuals, with no differences in other positive AOE. Partial correlations controlling for social anxiety revealed that AOE specific to social situations correlated with greater drinking and alcohol dependency levels. Findings indicate that identification of AOE specific to social situations may be useful in classifying socially anxious individuals at risk for alcoholism and as a focus of expectancy challenge strategies for individuals with co-occurring social anxiety and drinking problems.     

Parent Expectancies for Child Therapy: Assessment and Relation to Participation in Treatment

Two studies examined parents' pre-treatment expectancies for their child's psychotherapy among children (N = 405, ages 2–15) referred for oppositional, aggressive, and antisocial behavior. Study I focused on the development of a measure to assess expectancies. The results indicated that the measure was internally consistent. Moreover, socioeconomic disadvantage and ethnic minority status, severity of child dysfunction, child age, and parental stress and depression were significant predictors of lower parent expectancies for child therapy. Study II examined the relation of parent expectancies and participation in therapy. The results indicated that parent expectancies predicted subsequent barriers to treatment participation, treatment attendance, and premature termination from therapy. Overall, these findings have implications for the study of expectancies for therapy, for identifying families at risk for premature termination from treatment, and for the development of interventions designed to increase parent participation in child therapy.     

Stages of Change in Smoking Cessation: A Comparison of Expectancies Among Precontemplators and Contemplators

Previous research has shown that smokers progress through a series of stages of change as they attempt to quit their habit. This study evaluated smokers in the precontemplation and contemplation stages in order to explore how we can effectively facilitate positive stage transition. Precontemplators (n = 71) and contemplators (n = 30) were compared in terms of two types of expectancies: self-efficacy beliefs and response outcome expectancies. Stage of change was defined according to both categorical and continuous dimensions, each of which led to different results. The findings are discussed in terms of their potential applications to smoking cessation programs and their implications regarding the stage model of change.     

Cross-Cultural Competence: The Role of Emotion Regulation Ability and Optimism

Cross-cultural competence (3C) is critical for military personnel to understand and perform effectively in complex cultural environments and to interact with individuals from other cultures. The knowledge, skills, and abilities that make up 3C can result in clearer communication, build trust, and strengthen relationships in cross-cultural social contexts ( Selmeski, 2009 Selmeski, B. (February, 2009). Military Cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development. Proceedings from the 7th Biennial Equal Opportunity, Diversity, and Culture Research Symposium. Patrick Air Force Base, FL. [Google Scholar]). This research investigated the role of emotional regulation and optimism in the development of 3C in military personnel. Results demonstrate that the ability to regulate emotions is positively related to 3C, both directly and through its effect on optimism.     

初中生人格型乐观、应对策略与学业成绩的关系

采用生活取向测量、应对方式量表对514名初中生进行调查,旨在了解人格型乐观主义、应对策略与学业成绩之间的关系。运用相关分析和回归分析的方法对它们的关系进行了考察。结果发现初中生积极和消极应对策略在其乐观主义影响学业成绩中的中介效应不显著,在不同学业成绩群体中,乐观主义、应对策略和学业成绩的关系会产生变化,乐观主义和积极应对策略对学业成绩有显著的预测力。     

Group-Based Trust in Strangers: The Role of Stereotypes and Expectations

ABSTRACT— Across two studies, we provide evidence for group-based trust in strangers. Specifically, when we offered participants a choice between an unknown monetary allocation made by an in-group (university or major) or an out-group allocator, both of whom had total control over the distribution of an identical sum of money, participants strongly preferred the in-group allocator. This preference occurred regardless of whether the stereotype of the in-group was relatively more positive or more negative than that of the out-group. However, this preference did not persist when participants believed that the allocator was unaware of their group membership. Measures of expected share of the allocator's funds support our hypothesis that differential trust of in-group members results from expectations of altruistic and fair behavior toward fellow in-group members rather than from positive stereotypes of the in-group.     

Ecstasy Use,Outcome Expectancies,and Sexual Risk Taking

Ecstasy has become one of the most widely used illicit drugs in Australia. This study investigated outcome expectancies as possible motivating and maintaining factors in ecstasy use and sexual risk‐taking behaviour. A sample of regular ecstasy users (N = 220) from Sydney and Canberra, Australia, was recruited for structured face‐to‐face interviews. They also completed an Ecstasy Expectancy Questionnaire. Seven of eight subscales significantly differentiated regular users from non‐users. Interestingly, light and heavier users held similar outcome expectancies, except that light users endorsed items on the sexual enhancement subscale more strongly than heavier users. Further investigation showed that the level of sexual risk taking observed in this sample was high, with the majority of participants reporting multiple partners, “casual” sexual encounters, sex under the influence of substances, and inconsistent condom use. Using logistic regression analyses, a key finding was that positive sex‐related ecstasy outcome expectancies were associated with involvement in disinhibited sexual behaviour under the influence of ecstasy. These effects persisted after statistically controlling for the frequency of ecstasy use. The findings suggest that sexual risk taking is related not only to the disinhibiting properties of ecstasy but also to beliefs that users hold about the effects of the drug.     

Perceived Health: A Test of Incremental Validity in Relation to Smoking Outcome Expectancies,Motivation to Smoke and Desire to Quit Smoking

This study examined the role of perceived health in predicting theoretically‐relevant aspects of smoking behavior among 161 young adult regular smokers (67 females; mean age = 21.9 years (SD = 7.2), cigarettes per day (M) = 12.2 (SD = 5.7)) recruited from the general community. Consistent with prediction, results indicated that relative to anxiety sensitivity, gender, number of cigarettes smoked per day and nicotine dependence, perceived physical health uniquely and significantly predicted expectancies for negative affect reduction and expectancies that smoking would lead to negative personal consequences. Additionally, perceived health incrementally predicted motivation to smoke to reduce negative affect. In contrast to expectation, perceived health was unrelated to motivation to quit smoking. Results are discussed in relation to the role of perceived health as a cognitive vulnerability factor for specific types of smoking patterns.     

The Bantu Clerk: A Study of Role Expectations

Summary

In an earlier work an hypothesis of consistency between a number of independent beliefs and attitude, and between a number of independent behaviors and attitude, was developed and tested by survey research. The present study extended the earlier work by investigating the joint relationship of belief and behavior to attitude. Both belief and behavior indices were found to correlate significantly with attitude. Further, the multiple correlation, with attitude as the dependent variable, was significantly stronger than either first-order relationship. This research has implications for specific attitude-belief and attitude-behavior consistencies and for attempts to understand unimpressive relations between behavior and attitude.     

The Role of Expectations in Effective Genetic Counseling

The goals for this investigation were to assess individuals' expectations for social support from genetic counselors, and to explore how these expectations influence perceptions of genetic counselor effectiveness. Two studies were conducted to address these goals. Results from the first study show that individuals most frequently expect genetic counselors to provide options and support following the disclosure of distressing test results, while data from the second study demonstrate that expectations play a significant role in individuals' assessment of genetic counselor effectiveness. These findings shed light on what individuals expect from genetic counselors following the disclosure of medically positive test results and inform how these expectations influence the success of genetic counseling sessions.     

The Role of Expectations of Future Performance

The present study examined the relationships among gender, causal attributions for success, and the distribution of organizational rewards. In this study, which attempted to control for methodological deficiencies of previous research, male and female undergraduates reviewed the performance of four stimulus managers: three men and one woman. Participants were asked to make causal attributions for the stimulus manager's success, and to rate how effectively they believed the manager would perform in the future. They were then asked to nominate a manager for an organizational reward. Bias against the female manager was exhibited by females only. Results indicated that lower expectations of future performance for the female manager significantly predicted the bias against her in reward allocation.     

管理培训背景下适应性绩效的结构分析

本研究以适应性绩效理论为基础,在上海、北京、广州、浙江、江苏、重庆等地用问卷调查了十多个企业的管理培训实施情况,得到了334个有效样本。对数据进行探索性因素分析和验证性因素分析后,得到了管理培训背景下的四因素适应性绩效结构模型,四个因素分别被命名为:压力和应急处理、创新解决问题、岗位持续学习以及人际和文化适应。该适应性绩效结构为管理培训评估研究中效标的确定提供了新思路。最后讨论了今后研究需要进一步注意的问题。     

The Influence of Task Value,Expectancies for Success,and Identity on Athletes' Achievement Behaviors

This study extended and supported the use of Eccles et al.'s (1983) Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L. and Midgley, C. 1983. “Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors”. In Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches, Edited by: Spence, J. T. 75–146. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.  [Google Scholar] expectancy-value model to a competitive sport context. High school varsity basketball players (N = 189) were assessed on expectancies for success, interest value, attainment value, utility value, and basketball identity. Achievement behavior was measured as coaches't ratings of players' effort and persistence displayed throughout the season. Significant differences emerged between African-American and White athletes on all variables; however, no gender differences were present. Regression analyses indicated different patterns in the relationships among self- and task beliefs and achievement behaviors by race. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that self- and task beliefs mediated the relationship between identity and effort and persistence. Specifically, identity was a strong predictor of self- and task beliefs and expectancies significantly predicted effort and persistence. Explanations for the racial differences are discussed as well as the role that identity plays in the expectancy-value model and practical implications for coaches.     

Educational Expectations and School Achievement of Urban African American Children

The mechanisms used to convey parents' and teachers' educational expectations for the academic achievement of low-income African American children were explored using data from the Chicago Longitudinal Study. A total of 712 children were studied. A model of mediated effects was used to test the processes of influence from parents' and teachers' expectations to sixth-grade outcomes. Children's perceptions of expectations were hypothesized to mediate the effect of expectations to school outcomes. Study findings revealed that these perceptions only partially mediated the effects of expectations to sixth-grade reading and math outcomes, yet added unique independent variance to these outcomes. Prior achievement emerged as a powerful mediator of the effects of early educational intervention and sociodemographic variables to sixth-grade outcomes. These findings suggest a need to further investigate the processes of communicating parent and teacher expectations.     

Maintaining Life Satisfaction: The Role of Positive Cognitive Bias

Recent research into population standards of life satisfaction has revealed a remarkable level of uniformity, with the mean values for Western populations clustering at around three-quarters of the measurement scale maximum. While this seems to suggest the presence of a homeostatic mechanism for life satisfaction, the character of such a hypothetical device is uncertain. This paper proposes that well-being homeostasis is controlled by positive cognitive biases pertaining to the self. Most particular in this regard are the positive biases in relation to self-esteem, control and optimism. Past controversies in relation to this proposition are reviewed and resolved in favour of the proposed mechanism. The empirical data to support this hypothesis are discussed in the context of perceived well-being as an adaptive human attribute.     

Pastoral Care in Aged Care Settings: Role and Challenges

Journal of Religion and Health - This mixed methods study explored challenges faced by pastoral care workers. A development phase preceded an on-line survey completed by chaplains and pastoral...