Current Approaches to Change Blindness

Across saccades, blinks, blank screens, movie cuts, and other interruptions, observers fail to detect substantial changes to the visual details of objects and scenes. This inability to spot changes (“change blindness”) is the focus of this special issue of Visual Cognition. This introductory paper briefly reviews recent studies of change blindness, noting the relation of these findings to earlier research and discussing the inferences we can draw from them. Most explanations of change blindness assume that we fail to detect changes because the changed display masks or overwrites the initial display. Here I draw a distinction between intentional and incidental change detection tasks and consider how alternatives to the “overwriting” explanation may provide better explanations for change blindness.     

变化盲视的最新研究进展

变化盲视指观察者不能探测到客体或情境中的变化 ,是近十年以来认知心理学的研究热点之一。变化盲视可发生在各种实验条件下。例如 ,在扫视、眨眼、电影镜头切换时发生的变化以及真实情景的交互作用中发生的变化 ,观察者都有可能探测不到。本文介绍了近年来对于变化盲视的研究成果 ,包括经常使用的实验范式和对这个现象的解释等     

Change Blindness Blindness: The Metacognitive Error of Overestimating Change-detection Ability

Recent research has demonstrated that subjects fail to detect large between-view changes to natural and artificial scenes. Yet, most people (including psychologists) believe that they would detect the changes. We report two experiments documenting this metacognitive error. In Experiment 1, students in a large General Psychology class were asked if they thought they would notice the change in four different situations previously tested by Levin and Simons (1997) and Simons and Levin (1998). Most claimed that they would have noticed even relatively small changes that real observers rarely detected. In Experiment 2, subjects were tested individually and half were asked to predict whether someone else would detect the changes. Subjects again overestimated the degree to which changes would be detected, both by themselves and by others. We discuss possible reasons for these metacognitive errors including distorted beliefs about visual experience, change, and stability.     

变化知觉的另一面——变化盲

人们经常会探测不到事物的变化,这种现象被称为变化盲（change blindness）,它和变化觉察是变化知觉的两个面。对变化盲的研究主要集中以下几个方面：对变化盲现象产生的原因辨析以及从刺激属性和注意广度、知识经验、个体差异、文化背景等分析变化盲的影响因素;近几年来内隐变化觉察也引起研究者的争论和重视;此外,对变化盲的多（跨）通道和错误元认知研究也成为一种新的研究动向。同时,变化盲研究在其表征机制、加工方式以及内隐变化觉察等方面尚存在争议,变化盲的错误元认知研究以及变化盲的认知神经心理研究则是此领域的薄弱环节。     

Intentionalism and Change Blindness

According to reductive intentionalism, the phenomenal character of a conscious experience is constituted by the experience's intentional (or representational) content. In this article I attempt to show that a phenomenon in visual perception called change blindness poses a problem for this doctrine. Specifically, I argue that phenomenal character is not sensitive, as it should be if reductive intentionalism is correct, to fine-grained variations in content. The standard anti-intentionalist strategy is to adduce putative cases in which phenomenal character varies despite sameness of content. This paper explores an alternative antiintentionalist tack, arguing, by way of a specific example involving change blindness, that content can vary despite sameness of phenomenal character.

How Stimulus Variables Combine to Affect Change Blindness

Change blindness is the inability to detect changes that occur in a scene, when the scene is briefly obscured while the change happens. It has been found to occur during driving simulations and computer use for example. Scene-Complexity, stimulus On-Time and time for which a scene is obscured can all affect our ability to detect changes (or change blindness). In most studies parameters have been selected to induce change blindness with little consideration of the extent to which change blindness might be induced. There is however evidence that variables that describe the visual scene can affect likelihood of detecting changes (Rensink Visual Cognition 7:345?C376, 2000). These effects have in this paper been explored in combination. Increasing Scene-Complexity, decreasing stimulus On-Time and increasing the duration for which a scene is obscured all increase change blindness but they all interact to further increase the likelihood of changes being missed. In order to reduce change blindness in a changing scene, all the variables need to be considered.     

The Effects of Scene Inversion on Change Blindness

In two experiments, participants searched for a difference between two views of a scene. In Experiment 1, the authors extended the change-blindness findings from previous work by R. A. Rensink, J. K. O'Regan, and J. J. Clark (1997), which used an experimenter-induced global transient, to a less artificial situation in which participants searched for a difference in a pair of photographic images presented simultaneously. To examine the idea that meaning-driven endogenous orienting was responsible for the previously observed advantage for changes in center-of-interest items, the authors inverted half of the image pairs. The advantage for center-of-interest items was replicated with upright displays, but it was completely eliminated by inversion, strongly supporting the role of meaning-driven endogenous orienting in this task. With flickering displays (Experiment 2), the center-of-interest effect was completely unaffected by inversion. The authors suggest that when change blindness is induced via flicker, scene modifications are typically found by stimulus-driven rather than by meaning-driven processes.     

Change Blindness and Eyewitness Testimony

The authors explored the relevance of research on change blindness to eyewitness identification and testimony under intentional and incidental memory conditions. Participants (N = 80, 40 men and 40 women) viewed a video enactment of a burglary in which the identity of the burglar changed at the halfway point of the film. Half of participants were briefed to remember the content, and the other half were not. All were tested for the recall of the content, awareness of the change, and ability to identify either or both of the burglars. Some 61% of participants did not notice the identity change. Rates of detection were significantly higher in participants in the intentional condition, who also recalled significantly more detail from the film. Awareness of change was also significantly related to content recall scores and accuracy of identification of both burglars. The results illustrate the interrelation between the eyewitness and change blindness literatures.     

Exploring the informational sources of metaperception: the case of Change Blindness Blindness

Perceivers generally show a poor ability to detect changes, a condition referred to as “Change Blindness” (CB). They are, in addition, “blind to their own blindness”. A common explanation of this “Change Blindness Blindness” (CBB) is that it derives from an inadequate, “photographical” folk-theory about perception. This explanation, however, does not account for intra-individual variations of CBB across trials. Our study aims to explore an alternative theory, according to which participants base their self-evaluations on two activity-dependent cues, namely search time and perceived success in prior trials. These cues were found to influence self-evaluation in two orthogonal ways: success-feedback influenced self-evaluation in a global, contextual way, presumably by recalibrating the norm of adequacy for the task. Search time influenced it in a local way, predicting the success of a given trial from its duration.     

多通道变化盲:理论、方法与进展

人们在特定条件下通常难以探测到事物的变化,这种现象发生在视、听、触感觉通道分别称为变化盲视、变话盲听和变化盲触。文章主要对以下四个方面进行详细的探讨:变化盲视及视觉表征理论、变化盲听及听觉信息加工机制、变化盲触及体表空间表征、多通道变化盲及空间注意和空间表征跨通道一致性本质。此外,文章还对多通道变化盲的理论深度和拓展方向及相关应用研究进行了展望。     

注意和工作记忆提取对变化盲视的影响

变化盲视是指观察者不能探测到视觉情境中明显的变化。本研究采用线索提示范式考察了注意和工作记忆提取对变化盲视的影响。结果发现,前置有效线索虽然不能缩短变化探测的时间,但可以降低变化盲视发生的概率,而后置有效线索既不能缩短变化探测的时间,也不能降低变化盲视的发生概率。结论表明,注意对变化盲视有显著影响,但工作记忆提取对变化盲视的影响不显著。     

驾驶员在交通场景中的变化视盲及其启示

变化视盲(change blindness)现象,也称变化盲,是指视觉情景中人们不能觉察到某个事物变化的现象。研究以驾驶员为主体探讨了道路交通领域中的变化视盲现象。首先,从场景变化特征和驾驶员特征两个方面综述了影响驾驶员变化视盲的影响因素;其次,结合影响因素与变化视盲的特征理论建立了驾驶员变化检测的认知过程模型;最后,在模型的基础上,讨论了提高驾驶员变化检测能力的实际意义和潜在措施,并对未来有关交通安全变化视盲的研究予以展望。     

Match-Action: The Role of Motion and Audio in Creating Global Change Blindness in Film

An everyday example of change blindness is our difficulty to detect cuts in an edited moving-image. Edit blindness (Smith & Henderson, 2008) is created by adhering to the continuity editing conventions of Hollywood, for example, coinciding a cut with a sudden onset of motion (match-action). In this study, we isolated the roles motion and audio play in limiting awareness of match-action cuts by removing motion before and/or after cuts in existing Hollywood film clips and presenting the clips with or without the original soundtrack whilst participants tried to detect cuts. Removing post-cut motion significantly decreased cut detection time and the probability of missing the cut. By comparison, removing pre-cut motion had no effect suggesting, contrary to the editing literature, that the onset of motion before a cut may not be as critical for creating edit blindness as the motion after a cut. Analysis of eye movements indicated that viewers reoriented less to new content across intact match-action cuts than shots with motion removed. Audio played a surprisingly large part in creating edit blindness with edit blindness mostly disappearing without audio. These results extend film editor intuitions and are discussed in the context of the Attentional Theory of Cinematic Continuity (Smith, 2012a).     

工作记忆内容对无意视盲的改善作用

无意视盲是注意捕获失败的一种现象.研究发现:工作记忆内容对视觉注意的引导可以影响视觉注意的捕获.本研究以此为基础探讨了工作记忆内容能否影响无意视盲.本研究采用了静态无意视盲典型范式,通过两个实验分别探讨了工作记忆对无意视盲的引导作用以及在不同知觉负荷下引导作用的自动性,进而研究工作记忆内容对无意视盲的改善作用.实验1结果表明,当非期望刺激与工作记忆内容属于同一类别时,对非期望刺激的觉察率显著高于当非期望刺激与工作记忆内容不属于同一类别的情况,说明在纯语义的水平上工作记忆内容可以引导视觉注意捕获,进而改善无意视盲.实验2发现,当知觉负荷由低到高变化时,非期望刺激与工作记忆内容同类属时,觉察率无显著变化,说明工作记忆内容对无意视盲引导不受知觉负荷的调节,是一种自动化的过程.     

Attenuated Change Blindness for Exogenously Attended Items in a Flicker Paradigm

When two scenes are alternately displayed, separated by a mask, even large, repeated changes between the scenes often go unnoticed for surprisingly long durations. Change blindness of this sort is attenuated at “centres of interest” in the scenes, however, supporting a theory of change blindness in which attention is necessary to perceive such changes (Rensink, O'Regan, & Clark, 1997). Problems with this measure of attentional selection - via verbally described “centres of interest” - are discussed, including worries about describability and explanatory impotence. Other forms of attentional selection, not subject to these problems, are employed in a “flicker” experiment to test the attention-based theory of change detection. Attenuated change blindness is observed at attended items when attentional selection is realized via involuntary exogenous capture of visual attention - to late-onset items and colour singletons - even when these manipulations are uncorrelated with the loci of the changes, and are thus irrelevant to the change detection task. These demonstrations ground the attention-based theory of change blindness in a type of attentional selection which is understood more rigorously than are “centres of interest”. At the same time, these results have important implications concerning the nature of exogenous attentional capture.     

School Counselor Accountability: The Path to Social Justice and Systemic Change

Expectations run high that accountability for student outcomes will continue to drive the education agenda with reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965). School counselors have also recognized the imperative to connect their work to school improvement goals. This article discusses action research undertaken by school counselors who used data‐informed practice to align counseling programs with the accountability expectations of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (2002) and the American School Counselor Association (2003, 2005) National Model.