Infants of adolescent and adult mothers: two indices of socioemotional development

This study compared infant-mother attachment and mastery motivation in one-year-old babies born to adolescent and adult mothers. In the laboratory, the infants' mastery motivation was assessed in an experimenter-administered structured toy play session and infant-mother attachment was classified on the basis of the strange situation procedure. The results indicated that there were more, although not significantly so, securely attached infants among those born to adult than to adolescent mothers (70% as compared to 53%). The relatively low number of securely attached infants in the adolescent mother group may reflect the fact that in many cases the mothers were not the primary caretakers. Among the adolescents, the majority were living with their family of origin. Nevertheless, their infants' motivation to master the environment, assessed independently, compared favorably with that of the adult mother group. Infants of adolescent mothers were significantly more persistent than were those born to adult mothers, although they were affectively less positive during the toy play. It is suggested that the socioemotional development of infants born to adolescent mothers may be buffered by a network containing multiple caretakers. Finally, the relationship between attachment and mastery motivation was examined. The results showed that infants with an avoidant or secure attachment relationship were more persistent as well as competent than were ambivalent infants during free play.     

Gender Differences in Elaborative Parent–Child Emotion and Play Narratives

Reminiscing about the past is an everyday activity that has implications for children’s developing memory and socioemotional skills. However, little research has systematically examined how mothers and fathers may differentially elaborate and engage their daughters and sons in reminiscing. In this study, we asked 42 broadly middle-class, highly educated U.S., mostly Caucasian mothers and fathers from the same families, living in the southeastern U.S., to reminisce about a happy, sad, peer conflict, parental conflict, playground and special outing experience with their 4-year-old child. Narratives were coded for parental styles of cognitive elaboration and joint engagement. Results indicated that mothers are both more elaborative and engaged with children than fathers are, especially about negative emotional and positive play experiences. Thus, mothers appear to be helping children recount and understand their personal past more than fathers, and specifically, in working through difficult emotions that may facilitate emotion regulation skills.     

中国家庭中的亲子互动行为与儿童行为抑制性的发展

本研究采用家庭录像的方法对53名中国4岁儿童在家庭自由游戏和拼图游戏小与父母的交往行为进行了观察,并在这些儿童7岁时任实验室里的行为抑制性进行了录像观察,从而考察了在家庭自然环境中的亲子互动行为与儿童行为抑制性发展之间的关系。结果发现：在以上家庭录像的两个情境中,随着年龄的变化,母亲的控制行为越多,儿童抑制倾向的发展速度越快,作抑制倾向发展得越慢;儿童顺从行为越多,儿童的非抑制倾向发展得越慢,抑制倾向发展得越快。父母之间的情感表达越亲密,父亲在身体上对儿童的积极情感越多,儿童的非抑制倾向发展得越快。     

Effects of the Early Prevention Program “Keiner FÄllt Durchs Netz” (“Nobody Slips Through the Net”) on Child,Mother, and Their Relationship: A Controlled Study

The study investigated the effects of a German family‐supporting prevention program “Keiner fällt durchs Netz” (KfdN; “Nobody Slips Through the Net”) after the child's first year in the sample of 152 psychosocially stressed mothers and children who took part in this program and 150 mothers and children from comparison‐group families. The improved level of development posited in the children after intervention as compared to children from the comparison group was confirmed in the social development area (d = .35). In addition, mothers in the KfdN group judged their 1‐year‐old children to be less “difficult” compared to the assessments of the mothers in the comparison group (d = .24). Due to the intervention, the dysfunctionality of the mother–child interaction was reduced (mothers’ self‐assessment, d = .27). No intervention effects were found in for degree of maternal stress. The expected intervention effects in maternal sensitivity were not empirically confirmed. The results suggest that the KfdN intervention exerted a direct positive influence on childhood traits such as social development and temperamental “difficulty” and also positively influenced the mothers’ perceptions or attitudes toward their children's conduct.     

Social competence and conduct problems in young children: issues in assessment

Examined the differences in various facets of social competence in 2 groups of young children (ages 4-7 years)--a clinic-referred group of aggressive children (N = 60) diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder or conduct problems and a matched comparison group of typically developing children (N = 60). Four aspects of social competence were assessed: social information processing, actual observations of conflict management skills and social play interactions during peer interactions, positive social interactions with mothers and fathers at home, and teacher reports of social competence. The social information processing assessed included problem-solving skills (hypothetical skills as demonstrated on a social problem-solving test), self-perceptions (child's awareness of his or her own social self and feelings of loneliness), perceptions of others (attributions), and perceptions of others' attitudes toward oneself. To determine the construct validity of various means of assessing child social competence, we correlated children's social information processing measures with parent and teacher reports of social adjustment and with actual observations of interactions during peer play and at home with parents. Results comparing the 2 groups suggest that young children with conduct problems have deficits in their social information processing awareness or interpretation of social cues--they overestimate their own social competence and misattribute hostile intent to others. Tests of cognitive problem solving and observations of peer play interactions indicated that the children with conduct problems had significantly fewer positive problem-solving strategies and positive social skills, more negative conflict management strategies, and delayed play skills with peers than the comparison children. Correlation analyses indicated significant correlations between children's negative attributions and the ratio of positive to negative problem-solving strategies with observations of peer play interactions.     

Maternal Factors Related to Parenting Practices,Developmental Expectations,and Perceptions of Child Behavior Problems

Parenting practices of a representative sample of 1,056 urban mothers with very young children were studied via the Parent Behavior Checklist (Fox, 1994) and the Behavior Screening Questionnaire (Richman & Graham, 1971). Potential determinants of parenting practices were also addressed, including maternal age, marital status, education level, number of children living at home, and family socioeconomic status. Less positive parenting practices concerning nurturing and discipline were found among mothers who were younger, had more than one child living at home, were single, had a lower income level, and had lower educational attainment. These mothers also tended to perceive their children as demonstrating more difficult behavior problems. However, the negative influence of some determinants of parenting practices, such as low income, was found to be moderated by the presence of other determinants, such as more education. The present results provide evidence that multiple determinants influence parenting practices among parents of young children.     

Mothers’ Gender-Role Attitudes and Their Responses to Young Children’s Hypothetical Display of Shy and Aggressive Behaviors

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of child gender and maternal gender-role attitudes in mothers’ reactions to hypothetical vignettes depicting their preschool-aged child displaying aggressive and shy behaviors. Participants were 78 mothers of preschool-aged children (43 girls, 35 boys; M _age?=?47.44?months, SD?=?11.00) living in a mid-sized city in Ontario, Canada. Mothers provided reports of their gender-role attitudes and rated their expectancies and emotional/behavioral reactions following hypothetical vignettes depicting their child displaying physically aggressive and shy-withdrawn behaviors. It was hypothesized that mothers would respond with more negative (and less positive) emotions and expectancies in response to children’s gender-incongruent problem behaviors (i.e., shyness among boys, aggression among girls). It was further hypothesized that these gender effects would be more pronounced among mothers espousing more traditional (i.e., less egalitarian) gender-role attitudes. Results of multiple regression analyses indicated that mothers anticipated more negative consequences to aggression among boys than among girls. Several significant interaction effects also emerged between child gender and maternal gender-role attitudes, particularly with regards to children’s shyness. Among mothers of boys, a more egalitarian gender-role attitude was associated with greater anticipated benefits of shyness, and both more positive and more negative emotional responses to shyness. For mothers of girls, however, the opposite pattern emerged. Results provide some support for the notion that mothers may enforce gender-typical social behaviors in their children, particularly if they themselves hold more traditional gender-role attitudes.     

Parent-identified problem preschoolers: Mother-child interaction during play at intake and 1-year follow-up

Parent-referred 2- and 3-year-olds and controls, participating in a longitudinal study of hyperactivity and related behavior problems, were observed with their mothers during play at an initial assessment and a 1-year follow-up. Mothers of problem children provided more redirection initially and made more negative control statements at follow-up than mothers of controls; problem youngsters tended to play more aggressively. Sex differences were prominent. Mothers of boys, regardless of referral status, were more directive at the initial assessment; their sons were less cooperative and somewhat more aggressive in their play. Maternal involvement in play decreased over time, possibly as a response to developmental changes in children's play. Group by time interactions indicated that mothers of control children provided fewer negative control statements at follow-up relative to mothers of problem children and to their own levels at the first assessment; mothers of problem youngsters redirected their children less than they had initially. Mothers of boys were also less directive at follow-up relative to their initial levels. Situational and developmental factors are discussed briefly.     

Father–child and mother–child interaction in families with a child feeding disorder: The role of paternal involvement

To date, research about feeding disorder (FD) has focused almost exclusively on the mother–child dyad, ignoring fathers' roles. The current study investigated father–child interactions with children having FD. The sample consisted of 67 children (1–3 years old) and their mothers and fathers. Thirty‐four children, diagnosed with a nonorganic‐based FD (FD group) and 33 children without an FD (control group) were matched for age, gender, birth order, and maternal education. Data were collected during home visits. Mothers were interviewed about their and the father's involvement in childcare. In addition, mother–child and father–child interactions were videotaped during play and feeding. Both mothers and fathers from the FD group experienced less positive parent–child interactions than did parents in the control group. Furthermore, mothers in the FD group reported greater maternal versus paternal childcare involvement than did control group mothers. Finally, FD group mothers exhibited more parental sensitivity than did fathers during feeing interactions; however, this difference was observed only when coupled with low paternal involvement. In families where fathers were highly involved, no difference was evident in paternal and maternal sensitivity. These findings highlight the importance of fathers' involvement, especially in families with children exhibiting an FD.     

Mothers’ Dreams,Children Realities: The Case of Uprooted Families from South Lebanon

In this exploratory qualitative study, 15 mothers and 18 adolescents who, as family members of the South Lebanon Army, were uprooted from that country and now living in Israel, were interviewed separately. The mothers described their image of the adaptive adult, which stressed the positive values of loyalty to the family, orientation toward the group, respect, and acceptance of hierarchy and guided their child‐rearing goals and socialization. The children shared similar attitudes about the importance of family loyalty and orientation toward the group, but differed from their mothers with regard to the issues of respect and obedience. We discussed the notion of “liminality,” to further our understanding of the families in transition and suggest how it applies to the uprooted members of South Lebanon army. We suggest that different time orientations and contextual factors influence the participating mothers’ image of the adaptive adult and the degree to which their children accept it. Implications for research and interventions are also explored.     

Children of mothers being released from incarceration: characteristics and potential targets for intervention

Incarcerated mothers and their children may face a multitude of problems. To identify possible targets for intervention, more clarity is needed about characteristics of these children and their mothers. This study examined children’s life events, behaviour problems and social cognitions and mothers’ parenting behaviours as potential targets for intervention with mothers being released from incarceration, in the Netherlands with a culturally diverse sample. Participants were 121 children of mothers being released from incarceration and 63 children of comparison mothers from disadvantaged areas, without a history of incarceration. Children of mothers being released from incarceration were more disadvantaged in life events, had more behaviour problems, and their mothers’ parenting behaviours were characterized by lower involvement and poorer monitoring compared with children of comparison mothers. Suboptimal parenting behaviours of mothers being released from incarceration were statistically associated with children’s behaviour problems. Hence, these children face more difficulties that may contribute to problematic development than children from another at-risk population.     

Pediatric Symptom Checklist Ratings by Mothers with a Recent History of Intimate Partner Violence: A Primary Care Study

Screening for psychosocial problems is an effective way to identify children who need further evaluation, and many brief, psychometrically strong measures exist for this purpose. More research is needed, however, about the performance of these measures in special populations who are familiar to primary care settings. The purpose of this study was to examine and compare maternal ratings on the Pediatric Symptom Checklist (PSC) between low-income, urban mothers who had suffered intimate partner violence (IPV) in the past year (n = 23) and a demographically-matched comparison group of mothers (n = 23). Victims of violence rated their children as having significantly more problems in a number of categories (Total PSC Score, Externalizing, and Internalizing) than did mothers in the comparison group. The PSC shows promise as an adequate screening tool for psychosocial problems in the children of women who have suffered IPV, but more research is needed.     

Breast feeding: religious influences

In Orthodox Jewish communities, mothers are expected to breast-feed their infants and this expectation is to some extent based on religious beliefs. The degree to which this expectation promotes breast-feeding success was assessed by comparing a group of 50 Orthodox Jewish mothers with a group of 50 secular Jewish mothers in regard to infant feeding practices. All of the women lived in the Yeoville suburb of Jahannesburg, South Africa. An effort was made to interview all Orthodox mothers with at least 1 child under the age of 5 living in the area and it was assumed that the 50 mothers in the study constituted all or most of that population. A group of 50 secular mothers, comparable in age, education, and general living conditions, was also interviewed. The 50 Orthodox mothers had a total of 155 children and the secular mothers had a total of 119 children. Despite the quasi-religious motivation of the Orthodox mothers to breast-feed, there were few differences in the infant feeding practices of the 2 groups. At the age of 1 month the ratio of breast-fed to bottle-fed infants was 2.5:1 for the infants of Orthodox mothers and 2.3:1 for the infants of secular mothers. At age 6 months the ratio was 1:3 for both groups. At age 9 months the ratio was 1:6.4 for Orthodox mothers and 1:6 for secular mothers. The children of Orthodox mothers were breast-fed for an average of 5 months while the children of mothers of secular children were breast-fed for 4-1/2 months.     

Maternal Emotion Socialization and Child Outcomes among African Americans and European Americans

Mothers’ emotion socialization practices are very important for children’s later outcomes; however, we know very little about how these practices may lead to different outcomes for European American (EA) and African American (AA) children. In the current study, maternal emotion socialization practices were investigated in relation to child emotion-related outcomes in 122 pairs of mothers and preschool-age children, and differences in associations were examined for EA and AA families. Mothers were assessed for their expressions of positive emotion with their child and their responses to their child’s negative emotions, including support of sadness/fear and magnification of anger, when children were 3. Children were assessed for their expression of positive emotion with their mother and their internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors when they were 4. When ethnicity was included as a moderator, results revealed that when AA mothers expressed more positive emotion, their children were also more positive 1 year later. Additionally, as AA mothers provided greater support for their children’s sadness/fear, these children tended to have fewer later internalizing problems. Finally, when AA mothers responded with more magnification of their children’s anger, these children tended to have greater internalizing and externalizing problems 1 year later. These associations were not found for EA families. Results highlighted differential effects based on the type of support provided by mothers and the role that mothers played in encouraging or suppressing their child’s expressions. The overall findings highlight the need to consider maternal emotion socialization from a culturally-informed perspective.     

家中不同游戏情境中婴儿与父母交流行为的比较研究

采用录像手段,考察真实的家庭环境中,16名婴儿与父亲和母亲在自由游戏和完成任务游戏情境中的交流行为。研究结果表明,无论在自由游戏还是在完成任务游戏中,母亲的表态行为都比父亲的多些。婴儿对母亲的表态行为比对父亲的多,对父亲的行动祈求、信息祈求和注意祈求行为比对母亲的多。在自由游戏中,母亲比父亲更多地承诺参与儿童的游戏。总体上,父母亲根据交流情境选择交流行为外,也表现出自身的特点,孩子则根据交流对象的选择交流行为。     

Maternal question-asking behavior to Taiwanese children with Down syndrome and with no disability

To study maternal question-asking of Taiwanese children during free play and at meal time each mother-child dyad was videotaped at home. The mothers of children with Down syndrome asked more questions across different types of question during free play, at meal time, and for the sum of these two. Although no group difference was found for producing each type of question during free play, these 20 mothers asked more directive questions at meal time. Combined conditions analysis showed they used more directive questions and fewer requests for clarification than the 20 mothers of children with no disability.     

A comparison of Estonian,Swedish, and Finnish mothers' controlling attitudes and behaviour

The current study examined maternal control of children across families with early adolescents from different sociocultural backgrounds. The intention was to find out whether belonging to the same ethnic group/language community (i.e., Estonian or Finnish) is more important for determination of child‐rearing attitudes and practices than sharing the immediate sociocultural context (i.e., Swedish society). In addition, attention was paid to the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. The results were obtained from three monocultural samples of Estonian, Swedish, and Finnish families living in their country of origin; two bicultural samples consisted of Estonian and Finnish families residing in Sweden. Two types of data—mothers' reported attitudes towards the importance of control over children's behaviour (the Control Scale) and video‐recorded real‐life verbal behaviour—were used to determine how the mothers' attitudes towards control relate to the behavioural control exhibited in their real‐life interactions. The study showed that the Finno‐Ugric mothers living in their countries of origin controlled their children's behaviour significantly more frequently than those Finno‐Ugric mothers who live in Sweden, but both Estonian samples outperformed Finns in their reported control attitudes. The Swedish mothers were the least directive among monocultural mothers both in maternal beliefs and in real‐life behaviour, but they differed from Estonian and Finnish mothers residing in Sweden only in their lower scores on the Control Scale. The study revealed that mothers' real‐life control behaviour corresponded rather modestly to their reported attitudes toward the importance of controlling children. Analyses of actual mother—child interaction showed that only the Estonian mothers living in Estonia actually put their relatively high scores on the Control Scale into practice in real‐life interactions with their children. Finally, some characteristics of Estonian, Finnish, and Swedish languages and cultures are discussed that might determine the cultural differences in child rearing that emerged.     

Mothers’ physical interventions in toddler play in a low-income,African American sample

This mixed method study examined 28 low-income African American mothers’ physical interventions in their 14-month-old toddlers’ play. Inductive methods were used to identify six physical intervention behaviors, the affect accompanying physical interventions, and apparent reasons for intervening. Nonparametric statistical analyses determined that toddlers experienced physical intervention largely in the context of positive maternal affect. Mothers of boys expressed highly positive affect while physically intervening more than mothers of girls. Most physically intervening acts seemed to be motivated by maternal intent to show or tell children how to play or to correct play deemed incorrect. Neutral affect was the most common toddler affect type following physical intervention, but boys were more likely than girls to be upset immediately after physical interventions. Physical interventions intended to protect health and safety seemed the least likely to elicit toddler upset.     

家庭游戏情境对母婴交流行为的影响

采用录像手段,考察真实的家庭环境中,自由游戏和完成任务游戏情境对16对母婴交流行为的影响。研究结果表明:母亲表现出高控制的交流行为,孩子则使用更多的表态行为和注意行为。母亲的行为以信息祈求和行动指令为主,但在自由游戏中,母亲使用更多的信息祈求行为,在完成任务游戏中,母亲使用更多的行动指令。可见,母亲根据游戏情境调整自己的交流行为,婴儿也表现出相应的适应性行为。     

Maternal unresolved attachment status impedes the effectiveness of interventions with adolescent mothers

Children of adolescent mothers are at risk for a variety of developmental difficulties. In the present study, the effectiveness of a brief intervention program designed to support adolescent mothers' sensitivity to their infants' attachment signals was evaluated. Participants were adolescent mothers and their infants who were observed at 6, 12, and 24 months of age. The intervention conducted by clinically trained home visitors consisted of eight home visits between 6 and 12 months in which mothers were provided feedback during the replay of videotaped play interactions. At 12 months, 57% of the mother–infant dyads in the intervention group and 38% of the comparison group dyads were classified as secure in the Strange Situation. Seventy‐six percent of the mothers in the intervention group maintained sensitivity from 6 to 24 months compared with 54% of the comparison mothers. Further analyses indicated that the intervention was effective primarily for mothers who were not classified as Unresolved on the Adult Attachment Interview.