6 15岁儿童对友谊特性的认知发展

研究目的：（１）考察我国儿童、青少年的友谊特性的认知发展规律和特点;（２）探讨儿童友谊特性的认知结构。研究采用结构访谈法,被试为来自北京市普通幼儿园、小学和中学的６岁、８岁、１０岁、１２岁和１５岁儿童共１００名（每个年龄组２０名,男女各半）。结果发现：（１）６—１５岁儿童对友谊特性的认知结构由５个维度组成,即：个人交流和冲突解决,榜样和竞争,互相欣赏,共同活动和互相帮助,亲密交往。（２）对６—１５岁儿童,友谊特性中的５个维度的重要性次序为：共同活动和互相帮助,个人交流和冲突解决,榜样和竞争,互相欣赏,亲密交往。（３）从发展上来看,对友谊特性不同维度的认知发展趋势有很大年龄差异。６—８岁儿童只能认识到友谊特性中一些外在的、行为的特征;以后才能逐渐认识到那些内在的、情感性的特征。但是,原来那些外在的特征并没有随着儿童年龄的增长而被取代,而是与内在的、情感性的特性结合在一起,在认识中逐渐深化。（４）小学六年级儿童在共同活动和游戏上表现出性别差异（男生高于女生）;而在冲突解决上,女生的认知水平高于男生。此外,初中三年级学生在互相欣赏方面,男生的认识水平高于女生     

关于学前儿童友谊的研究综述

友谊在学前儿童的社会发展中占有很重要的地位，它能帮助儿童学习社会化技巧，促进社会性比较，以及使得幼儿得到团体的归属感。然而早期幼儿间的相互关系往往被忽略，直到1970年代才再度出现一些相关研究。笔者通过对有关学前儿童友谊研究的梳理，从学前儿童友谊概念，学前儿童友谊表现形式及影响因素等方面整理出关于学前儿童友谊的研究综述。     

初中生友谊的发展特点

以638名初中生为被试,采用自编的友谊问卷,考察其友谊发展特点。结果发现:(1)友谊认知上,初一学生在关心与帮助和信任与尊重维度的得分高于初二学生,女生在关心与帮助、重情轻利和信任与尊重维度的得分高于男生;(2)友谊行为上,女生表现出更多的积极交往行为,而男生在竞争嫉妒维度的得分显著高于女生;(3)友谊情感存在性别差异,女生对友谊关系更为满意,男生体验到更高水平的社交焦虑;(4)不同友谊认知类型的初中生表现出不同的友谊行为,且具有不同的情感体验。     

初中生友谊认知的类型特点

本研究在已有理论及开放式问卷基础上首先确定友谊认知的初步结构,采用探索性因素分析调整结构并筛选题目,最终确定友谊认知问卷的4个维度。验证性因素分析表明,自编的友谊认知问卷具有较好的结构效度,其他各项信效度指标也均达到心理测量学的要求。另外,聚类分析表明可以把初中生的友谊认知划分为重情感-重兴趣、重情感-轻兴趣和情感淡漠-轻兴趣3种类型。     

正念训练提升3~4岁幼儿注意力和执行功能

正念训练是指个体将注意力集中于当下体验的一种心理干预方法。先前研究表明正念训练可以促进其注意力、执行功能、情绪调节等的发展, 而正念训练对幼儿心理发展的作用机制并不清楚。因此, 为了考察正念训练对3~4岁幼儿注意力和执行功能的影响。采用前后测设计, 对正念组进行每周2次, 每次20~30分钟, 共12次的正念训练; 对照组不进行任何训练。结果发现：(1) 在注意力方面, 正念组与对照组前测差异不显著, 训练后正念组幼儿持续性注意力得分显著高于对照组。(2) 在执行功能方面, 正念组和实验组在抑制控制、认知灵活性以及工作记忆上前测得分差异不显著, 训练后正念组幼儿抑制控制和认知灵活性得分显著优于对照组, 而两组幼儿工作记忆差异不显著。研究表明, 正念训练促进了3~4岁幼儿注意力和执行功能的发展, 且在执行功能方面主要表现为对抑制控制和认知灵活性的提升。     

对友谊关系社会认知发展的跨文化比较研究

该研究以友谊许诺为主题的故事分别对冰岛（雷克雅未克市）和中国（北京市）的７岁和９岁小学儿童作个别随访,探查儿童在友谊矛盾冲突情景中是如何作出行动决定选择及道德评价的。研究结果揭示了文化及年龄变量对儿童有关社会认知发展的影响。     

促进被拒绝和被忽视幼儿的同伴交往的三种训练法

本研究在测查了4-6岁幼儿在幼儿园的社交地位的基础上,对筛选出的被拒绝和被忽视幼儿进行干预训练,探讨行为训练、认知训练和情感训练对不同类型的同伴交往不良幼儿干预的有效性,并对被拒绝型和被忽视型幼儿同伴交往不良的可能成因做了分析。结果表明:行为训练法、认知训练法、情感训练法都可以促进同伴交往水平,三种方法之间的效果无显著差异。对被拒绝儿童采用认知训练法效果较好,对被忽视儿童采用行为训练法更好。从4岁到6岁,行为训练法的效果逐渐减弱、而认知和情感训练法的效果则逐渐提高。     

7－15岁儿童对友谊关系的认知及其发展

用以承诺为主题的两难推理故事探查７－１５岁儿童对友谊关系的认知及其发展。结果表明,儿童的有关发展制约于社会观点采择能力的发展和调节友谊关系的道德规范的理解,并表现出阶段结构的发展模式,我国儿童的发展具有某种跨文化的普遍性,也显示出自己的特点。     

青少年网络受欺负与自伤的关系:友谊质量与反刍思维的调节作用

为探讨青少年网络受欺负与自伤行为的关系,以及友谊质量和反刍思维在二者关系中的调节作用,采用青少年自我伤害问卷、网络受欺负问卷、友谊质量问卷等对1805名青少年进行调查。结果表明,网络受欺负对自伤行为有正向预测作用,且友谊质量和反刍思维共同调节二者的关系,即在低友谊质量高反刍思维的情况下,网络受欺负对青少年自伤行为有明显影响。提示心理干预者要注意帮助网络受欺负者寻找同伴友谊情感支持和构建理性健康认知模式。     

融于教学的游戏训练对农村大班幼儿执行功能的促进

本研究采用实验组对照组前测后测设计,对实验组（即干预组）幼儿进行为期3个月的多种形式融于教学的游戏训练（自控力养成、专注力练习、记忆棋游戏）。结果发现：(1) 两组幼儿在执行功能的三个维度（工作记忆、抑制控制和认知灵活性）上的前测成绩均无显著差异,但训练后干预组幼儿的工作记忆和认知灵活性上的增量显著高于对照组;(2) 将干预组幼儿依据执行功能水平进行高、低分组划分,发现低执行功能组幼儿在三个维度都得到了显著提升,而高执行功能组幼儿只在工作记忆上有显著提升。研究证明,短期游戏训练一定程度上可以促进农村幼儿执行功能的进步,尤其对执行功能偏低的幼儿效果更加明显,显示出补偿发展的特征。     

青少年身体不满意与自杀意念的关系:一个有调节的中介模型

为考察青少年对身体的满意度和自杀意念的关系，探讨自尊是否在青少年身体不满意和自杀意念的关系中起中介作用，以及这个过程是否受到友谊质量的调节作用。采用身体不满意量表、自杀意念量表、自尊量表和友谊质量量表对来自湖北、安徽、河南、吉林四省六所高中的802名高一学生进行调查，结果显示：（1）身体不满意对自杀意念具有显著的正向预测作用；（2）自尊在身体不满意和自杀意念的关系中起部分中介作用；（3）友谊质量在身体不满意通过自尊影响自杀意念的中介模型后半段起调节作用，即在友谊质量较低的青少年中，自尊对自杀意念的影响更大。因此，青少年身体不满意和自杀意念之间存在有调节的中介效应。     

中学生自我提升的特点及其与人际适应的关系

采用自编自我提升领域问卷考察中学生自我提升的特点,并探讨自我提升与同伴接纳和友谊状况的关系。结果发现:(1)中学生在个体领域和人际领域(除道德行为维度)表现出自我提升倾向。(2)男生比女生、初中生比高中生表现更强的自我提升倾向。(3)同伴接纳度低的中学生身体与运动技能和一般认知能力维度自我提升程度较高,互选好朋友数量较少的中学生一般认知能力、个体心理特质、人际心理特质和道德行为维度的自我提升较高。     

小学低年级儿童对友谊关系的认知发展

本研究用日常生活承诺问题的两难故事对小学低年级儿童作个别随访,探查了儿童对友谊关系的认知发展。结果表明,儿童有关社会-道德思维的发展遵循着一定的模式,各发展水平既是连续的,也各有质的特点,从而形成层次等级结构系统。与国外同类研究的发现不同,我国儿童在较低发展水平上已显示出对他人利益的关心和责任感。本研究还对发展中的个别差异作了探讨。     

从加涅的学生素质观看素质教育

本文吸取了美国著名的的教育心理学家罗伯特．加涅在其新修 订的》教学设计原理》（１９９２年第四版）中有关学生素质的成分和组织的观点,分析了我国素质教育中的学生素持的构成成分。     

A PEER-MEDIATED SOCIAL NETWORK INTERVENTION TO ENHANCE THE SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF PERSONS WITH MODERATE AND SEVERE DISABILITIES

Increasingly, parents, teachers, and students with disabilities are advocating for interventions that go beyond skill training to provide support for participation in integrated environments and support for friendships. The present research demonstrated a social network intervention for youths with moderate and severe disabilities. Two groups of nondisabled peers were recruited to participate in weekly discussions with an adult integration facilitator to increase opportunities for social interaction for 2 students (1 with autism and 1 who was moderately mentally retarded). The groups met to discuss social interactions that had occurred with the students with disabilities and to talk about strategies to promote greater inclusion of the students into ongoing social interaction. The nondisabled students participated in the design and implementation of social skills interventions during transition times and lunch. The nondisabled students used self-monitoring data sheets to record the quantity and quality of interactions. The frequency of interaction, number of opportunities for interaction, and appropriateness of social interactions were analyzed with a multiple baseline design. Results indicated that the social network intervention was successful in increasing the quantity and quality of interactions and that the network strategy promoted the development of friendships. The results are discussed in terms of the need for additional research showing the relationships between increases in social competence, peer-mediated intervention, and the development and support of friendship.     

Looking to happy tomorrows with friends: Best and close friendships as they predict happiness

Friendships are an important source of happiness. The present study (n = 280) investigated the role of friendship quality and conflict in happiness and examined the feature of friendship that best predicted happiness. Information was gathered about the quality and conflict of the best, first and second close friendships of the individual. Results revealed that best friendship quality was the only significant predictor of happiness; however, individuals were happier when they experienced high quality first close friendships in conjunction with a high quality best friendship. Results also revealed that first close friendship quality buffered the negative impact of first close friendship conflict. The companionship feature of the best and first close friendship appeared as the strongest predictor of happiness. Findings were discussed in light of the literature and suggestions for future research were made.     

Mary Astell’s theory of spiritual friendship

Mary Astell’s theory of friendship has been interpreted either as a version of Aristotelian virtue friendship, or as aligned with a Christian and Platonist tradition. In this paper, I argue that Astell’s theory of friendship is determinedly anti-Aristotelian; it is a theory of spiritual friendship offered as an alternative to Aristotelian virtue friendship. By grounding her conception of friendship in a Christian–Platonist metaphysics, I show that Astell rejects the Aristotelian criteria of reciprocity and partiality as essential features of the friendship bond and that she develops a theory of friendship that is neither reciprocal nor partial. Further, I argue that Astell’s theory of friendship advances her feminist aims by providing a justification for female–female spiritual bonds in contradistinction to female–male marriage bonds. Astell argues that the female–female bond of spiritual friendship is sanctioned by God, and is, therefore, a divinely authorized alternative to the male–female bond of marriage. Through her theory of spiritual friendship, Astell marks out a central place for female–female bonds and provides women with a justification for resisting marriage.     

Perceived Work Competency and Sex Role Conflict: An Empirical Study

The present study examined sex role conflict, perceived work competency, and motivational needs among a broad sample of 298 working women and men (135 men, 163 women) at different hierarchical levels to see what possible gender differences existed in relationships among the variables. Correlation analysis and analysis of variance indicated that the female subjects had significantly higher levels of sex role conflict than the men, but a similar sense of work competency. Sex role conflict and perceived work competency were found to be negatively linked for the women but not for the men. Significant relationships were found between certain motivational needs and both sex role conflict and sense of work competency.     

Why people make friends: The nature of friendship

Friendship constitutes an important facet of human behavior, and the current research investigated the reasons that motivate people to make friends. First, a combination of qualitative research methods were used to identify 41 perceived reasons why people make friends. Using a sample of 1,316 Greek‐speaking participants, these reasons were classified into five broad factors. Participants indicated that the most important reasons for making friends were to receive social input, support, and because of someone else's good qualities. Sex differences and age effects were found in most factors. Finally, the five factors were classified into two broader domains, the first reflecting motivation to make a true friendship and the second to gain opportunistic benefits.