FEMINIST THERAPY WITH MAINLAND PUERTO RICAN WOMEN

This article discusses the use of feminist therapy with mainland Puerto Rican women. Sociocultural factors such as the experience of cross-cultural translocation, the process of transculturation, and the colonial background of Puerto Rico with its deleterious effects are examined. Special emphasis is given to Puerto Rican sex roles, the paradoxical condition of power and powerlessness, and Puertorriqueñas' complex sense of identity. These issues are illustrated with a clinical population, and as such, may represent an extreme position within the range of reactions to these sociocultural variables. Clinical vignettes present the use of feminist therapy with this client population. Feminism—with its emphasis on empowerment, adaptation and flexibility in role relationships, promotion of competence, and commitment to social change—is particularly relevant for Puerto Rican women. However, in order for feminist therapy to be effective with this population, it must be embedded in a sociocultural context.     

Crossing Borders: Multicultural Counseling With Puerto Rican Migrant Women

Puerto Rican migrant women require cultural‐specific counseling. The intersection of ethnicity, gender, culture, and sociopolitical contexts affects Puerto Rican migrant women's psychological coping and identity development. A psychology of place lens is used to discuss how numerous Puerto Rican migrant women nurture their identity development from borderlands (transfronterizas ) to transboricuas (trans–Puerto Rican). A case vignette illustrates the use of a multicultural counseling approach to address Puerto Rican migrant women's psychological needs. Las mujeres puertorriqueñas emigrantes requieren servicios de consejería culturalmente específicos. La intersección de etnicidad, sexo, cultura y contextos sociopolíticos afecta a la capacidad de afrontamiento y el desarrollo de la identidad de las mujeres puertorriqueñas emigrantes. Se usa el enfoque de la psicología de lugar para discutir cómo muchas mujeres puertorriqueñas emigrantes cultivan el desarrollo de su identidad de transfronterizas a transboricuas. Se usa la viñeta de un caso para ilustrar el uso de una aproximación multicultural a la consejería para tratar las necesidades psicológicas de las mujeres puertorriqueñas emigrantes.     

Listening to the Sound of Silence: Gender Roles and Communication about Sex in Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican women are at high risk for the heterosexual transmission of HIV. I examined social and interpersonal aspects of communication about sex in regard to safer sex practices within a specific cultural context. Participants in this study were 42 heterosexual Puerto Rican adults living in Puerto Rico, who ranged in age from 18 to 56 years. Participants were interviewed regarding their sexual communication, sexual practices, and their perceptions regarding the roles of culture and gender in the practice of safer sex. Inductive qualitative analysis showed that three factors limit meaningful communication about sex in Puerto Rico: (1) machismo, (2) the changing role of virginity, and (3) the silencing of both men and women. Implications for theory-based inventions informed by an interpersonal communication perspective are discussed.This research was supported by the Northeastern University Provost’s Research and Development Fund.     

Mediational models of spirituality and depressive symptomatology among HIV-positive Puerto Rican women

A survey of 142 Puerto Rican women living with HIV/AIDS in New York City revealed high Centers for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scores, with 66% of the sample scoring above the conventional threshold of possible clinical depression. Most respondents (71%) were Catholic, 29% considered themselves members of a church or other place of worship, and 30% reported attending religious services 1-3 times a month. As predicted, spirituality was high and negatively associated with CES-D scores. A series of simultaneous multiple regression analyses controlling for all potentially confounding medical and sociodemographic variables demonstrated that both mastery and self-esteem scores mediated this relationship. Implications for future research and the provision of services to HIV-positive Puerto Rican women are discussed.     

"But you don't look Puerto Rican": the moderating effect of ethnic identity on the relation between skin color and self-esteem among Puerto Rican women

This exploratory study investigated whether ethnic identity, as assessed by Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, functioned as a moderator in the relation between skin color (as measured by masked interviewer evaluation, participant self-report, and skin reflectance data) and self-esteem (as measured by Rosenberg's 1989 Self-Esteem Scale). In a sample of 53 English-speaking Puerto Rican women, a hierarchical multiple regression indicated that among lighter skinned women, those who felt less attached to their culture had less self-esteem than those who were more culturally embedded. Similarly, among darker skinned women, greater attachment to Puerto Rican culture was associated with greater self-esteem than a less defined ethnic identity. Findings are discussed in light of the beneficial effects of ethnic identity.     

Adaptation of parent-child interaction therapy for Puerto Rican families: a preliminary study

This study examines how parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT) was adapted for Puerto Rican parents of children aged 4-6 with hyperactivity and other significant behavior problems. Four steps were followed: (1) translation and preliminary adaptation of the treatment manual, (2) application of the treatment to 9 families as part of an exploratory study using repeated measures, (3) treatment revision and refinement, and (4) in-depth interviews with parents (n=15) and clinical psychologists (n=5) from Puerto Rico who provided feedback on treatment process and components. Throughout this process, cultural elements and modifications were recommended to be incorporated into the treatment protocol. Both quantitative and qualitative results suggest that PCIT seems to be an acceptable intervention for this population, with some minor changes. Parents reported a high level of satisfaction, a significant reduction in children's externalizing behavior problems, and reduction of parenting stress and improvement in their parenting practices. Psychologists also evaluated positively the treatment protocol and recommended its use. Results from this study may inform clinicians and researchers who work with Latino families about relevant issues to be considered to promote their participation in behavioral family interventions and to enhance their acceptability and effectiveness.     

A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Relational and Social Aggression in Female College Students from Puerto Rico and the United States

Researchers compared scores on a self-report measure of relational and social aggression using 2 groups, European American female university students (M = 20.23 years, SD = 3.88) from the mid-Atlantic region of the United States and Hispanic females from Puerto Rico (M = 19.34 years, SD = 1.26). Results indicate that cultural differences were evident in the use of relational and social aggression. The exclusively Hispanic Puerto Rican sample reported being more socially aggressive than the European American, mid-Atlantic sample. In contrast, the European American sample identified as being more relationally aggressive in their relationships than the Hispanic Puerto Rican sample. This distinction allows us to consider potential cultural differences in interpersonal relations in college-age females.     

Subverting Culture: Promoting HIV/AIDS Prevention Among Puerto Rican and Dominican Women

This article discusses the challenges faced by researchers and interventionists when attempting to promote change in social norms and normative beliefs that promote HIV/AIDS risk-related behaviors among Puerto Rican and Dominican women. The article focuses on the role of culture in HIV/AIDS prevention with women by analyzing the sociohistorical context of some cultural beliefs and by illustrating the tension between risk-related and protective cultural beliefs in research conducted by the authors with women in both New York and Puerto Rico. The authors propose that promoting changes in sex-related social norms and normative beliefs might be constructed as a subversive act and present the challenge this analysis poses for community psychology. They conclude that this conceptualization might be construed as subversive because rather than idealizing culture, it promotes changes that respect diversity within the culture and foster participation in the development of new cultural values, beliefs and norms.     

PROMOTING EFFECTIVE LITERACY LEARNING IN MINORITY STUDENTS BY FOCUSING ON TEACHER WORKSHOPS AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: A COMPREHENSIVE PROJECT SUPPORTED BY THE ANNENBERG FOUNDATION

This study examines if a group of recently arrived Puerto Rican students (NAPR) will develop reading skills in English and Spanish at the same rate that‐Puerto Rican students (BIPR) had who participated in bilingual programs. The sample consisted of 70 ninth grade students divided into a treatment group (NAPR) and a comparison group (BIPR). The treatment in this study was time spent in reading. The results indicated that the recently arrived Puerto Rican students performed significantly better than did the comparison group (BIPR) in vocabulary and reading comprehension in both English and Spanish.     

Correlates of African American and Latino parents' messages to children about ethnicity and race: a comparative study of racial socialization

Recently, social scientists have become increasingly interested in the nature of communications from parents to children regarding ethnicity and race. Termed racial socialization, race-related messages to children may have important consequences for children's identity development and well-being. This study examined the frequency and correlates of two dimensions of racial socialization—messages about ethnic pride, history, and heritage (Cultural Socialization) and messages about discrimination and racial bias (Preparation for Bias)—among 273 urban African American, Puerto Rican, and Dominican parents. Parents reported more frequent Cultural Socialization than Preparation for Bias. There were no significant ethnic group differences in the frequency of Cultural Socialization. However, African American parents reported more frequent Preparation for Bias than did Dominican parents who, in turn, reported more frequent messages of this sort than did Puerto Rican parents. Ethnic identity was a stronger predictor of Cultural Socialization among Puerto Rican and Dominican parents than among their African American counterparts. In contrast, perceived discrimination experiences was a stronger predictor of Preparation for Bias among African American and Dominican parents than among Puerto Rican parents. Finally, race-related phenomenon accounted for more variance in both Cultural Socialization and Preparation for Bias among parents reporting on their behaviors with children 10–17 years old as compared to parents reporting on their behaviors with children 6–9 years old.     

THE CULTURAL CONTEXT: A FACTOR IN ASSERTIVENESS TRAINING WITH MAINLAND PUERTO RICAN WOMEN

This study examined the inclusion of a cultural component in an assertiveness training program. Participants ( n = 40) were low income Puerto Rican women. There were four training groups divided up according to educational level. In addition, there was a no-training group consisting of Puerto Rican women who did not receive assertiveness training. Ten sessions of an hour and a half each were conducted over a period of 10 weeks. The training program was evaluated using a translation of the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Gay, Hollandsworth, & Galassi, 1975) as a pre/post program measure of assertiveness; evaluation forms completed by recipients at the close of each session were also used for evaluation purposes. Assertiveness scores of the training group were significantly higher than those of the no-training group. In addition, this effect was true regardless of level of education. Session-by-session evaluation forms suggested that cultural context may be an important mediator of assertive behavior. Limitations of the study are discussed, and it is recommended that future research examine the role of cultural factors in assertiveness training.     

Engineering Ethics in Puerto Rico: Issues and Narratives

This essay discusses engineering ethics in Puerto Rico by examining the impact of the Colegio de Ingenieros y Agrimensores de Puerto Rico (CIAPR) and by outlining the constellation of problems and issues identified in workshops and retreats held with Puerto Rican engineers. Three cases developed and discussed in these workshops will help outline movements in engineering ethics beyond the compliance perspective of the CIAPR. These include the Town Z case, Copper Mining in Puerto Rico, and a hypothetical case researched by UPRM students on laptop disposal. The last section outlines four future challenges in engineering ethics pertinent to the Puerto Rican situation.     

A Search for Spirituality

A mixture of African, European, and Native Puerto Rican (Tahino) religions form a historical foundation for the beliefs to which Puerto Ricans adhere. This article follows the search for spirituality of a mother and daughter. Although both born in Puerto Rico, mother was raised in the rural mountains of Puerto Rico and daughter was raised among the majority culture of the United States. Their search follows different paths, but the influence of their country is apparent in the rituals they perform and in the integration of their internal processes. More and more women turn to female spirituality and to rituals that honor the power with which all women are born. These rituals honor the earth as mother, the natural cycles women experience instinctively, and reliance upon their own inner voice as guidance. The building of faith and the reclamation of inner strength helps to peel away the layers, to face the truth of the past and present, and gives courage to health and transform the pain.     

Counseling the Hispanic Client: Cuban Americans,Mexican Americans,and Puerto Ricans

This article describes a general framework that may be used when counseling Cuban American, Mexican American, and Puerto Rican clients. The psychological and sociocultural characteristics of these populations are described. Both differences and similarities among the 3 groups are reviewed. The identification of the client's worldview, cultural values, and family values provides a specific framework for counseling these clients. Specific and general guidelines are provided for the psychological assessment of Cuban American, Mexican American, and Puerto Rican clients.     

Puerto Rican youth speaks out: SOME QUOTATIONS

In April 1971 11 lively and perceptive Puerto Rican young people met with guest editor Uvaldo Palomares for a discussion. Nine of the young people were in high school and two were enrolled in universities in the New York City area. All of them were involved in the Aspira Club Federation¹, whose aim is to enlighten and encourage Puerto Rican students to attain the educational level to which they aspire. First Palomares explained to the group that he was preparing a special issue of this journal and would like their opinions about counselors. Then he asked them to respond to the following questions: (a) Are there problems that are special to the Puerto Rican? What do you think is the present situation? (b) What are some positive characteristics of Puerto Ricans that counselors and teachers usually don't know about? (c) Why don't counselors or teachers generally recognize these things? (d) What can they do to overcome this problem? What follows here are frank, forthright responses relating to a great variety of concerns, from culture and stereotyping to poverty and tokenism. The interview has been edited by Geraldine Palomares, who is a consultant at the Human Development Training Institute in San Diego.     

SEX DIFFERENCES AND DEPRESSION IN PUERTO RICO

Sex differences in rates of depressive disorders and depressive symptomatology, as measured by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, are examined for an island-wide probability sample of Puerto Rico. Consistent with previous research, depression is significantly more prevalent in Puerto Rican women than men. Risk factors associated with depressive symptomatology are examined from a sex-role perspective. The results of multiple regression analyses show that even after demographic, health and marital and employment status variables are controlled, women continue to be at higher risk of depressive symptomatology than men. These results are interpreted within a cultural and sex-role perspective.     

Predicting Adolescent Self-Esteem From Participation in School Sports Among Latino Subgroups

Data from the in-school survey of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health on girls and boys who claim a Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban heritage were employed to test two hypotheses: (1) Participating in a school-based sport is associated with self-esteem, and (2) school attachment and a sense of physical well-being mediate this relationship. The first hypothesis was partially confirmed in that participation in school sports was associated with self-esteem among Mexican American adolescent girls and boys, Puerto Rican girls, and Cuban American boys, but not among Cuban American girls nor Puerto Rican boys. The second hypothesis was confirmed in that, where there was a significant relationship between participating in a school sport and self-esteem, school attachment and physical well-being mediated this relationship. The results underscore the need to study psychosocial processes separately among Latino subgroups and to examine gender within each subgroup.     

Counseling puerto ri cans: some cultural considerations

Puerto Ricans comprise a significant percentage of potential clients for many counselors. The migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland over the years has created cultural differences between Puerto Ricans raised in Puerto Rico and those raised in the U.S., but both groups are at a disadvantage in the dominant American culture. Migration back to the island in recent years is creating some problems for Puerto Rico, so Puerto Ricans often find prejudice both here and there. In this article the author, who married into a Puerto Rican family, discusses some values and traits that characterize Puerto Ricans and the behaviors that emerge from these traits. He offers practical suggestions for those counselors who have Puerto Rican clients.     

Asthma in children of Caribbean descent living in the inner-city: comparing Puerto Rican and Afro-Caribbean children

Ethnic minority children bear a disproportionate amount of the US asthma burden. We compared asthma morbidity and pulmonary function (%FEV₁) in two Caribbean groups living in the Bronx, NY: Puerto Rican and Afro-Caribbean children. Caregiver-child dyads (Puerto Rican: n = 113, M age = 9.89 ± 2.05; Afro-Caribbean: n = 47, Mage = 10.35 ± 2.08) responded to sociodemographic and asthma-related questions, and children’s %FEV₁ was measured. Puerto Rican children had significantly greater (past year) asthma morbidity, yet there were no significant differences in %FEV₁. This discrepancy between objective pulmonary function and asthma morbidity suggests the importance of considering sociocultural factors in pediatric asthma care.