INEQUALITY,INJUSTICE AND LEVELLING DOWN

The levelling down objection is the most serious objection to the principle of equality, but we think it can be conclusively defeated. It is serious because it pits the principle of equality squarely against the welfares of the persons whose welfares or resources are equalized. It suggests that there is something perverse about the principle of equality. In this paper, we argue that levelling down is not an implication of the principle of equality. To show this we offer a defence of, and partial elaboration of, what we call a common good conception of the principle of equality, which principle favours states in which everyone is better off to those in which everyone is worse off. We contrast this with what we call a purely structural conception of the principle of equality. The common good conception of equality involves two basic components: (1) in each circumstance there exists an ideal egalitarian distribution, which distributes equally all the available good in the distribution with the highest average welfare and (2) in evaluating how just the world is, it will matter how far the actual distribution is from the ideal distribution. The ideal egalitarian distribution in the circumstance is Pareto optimal and the approximation rule implies that Pareto superior states are less unjust than Pareto inferior states. 1     

PROCEDURAL INJUSTICE, VICTIM PRECIPITATION, AND ABUSIVE SUPERVISION

We used data collected from a field survey of 334 supervisor–subordinate dyads to test a model of the antecedents of abusive supervision. Path analytic tests of moderated mediation provided support for our prediction that supervisors' depression mediates the relationship between supervisors' procedural justice and subordinates' perceptions of their supervisors' abusiveness and that the mediation framework is stronger when subordinates are higher in negative affectivity. We discuss the study's implications for theory, research, and practice.     

THREE THEORIES OF HUMAN NATURE

In The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, Steven Pinker maintains that at present there are three competing views of human nature—a Christian theory, a “blank slate” theory (what I call a social constructivist theory), and a Darwinian theory—and that the last of these will triumph in the end. I argue that neither the outcome of such competition nor the particular content of these theories is as clear as Pinker believes. In this essay I take a critical as well as a constructive look at the challenge presented by a Darwinian theory of human nature—a challenge to the social sciences and the humanities and also to theology and more specifically to a Christian understanding of human nature.     

VIOLENT SPLITS OR HEALTHY DIVIDES? COPING WITH INJUSTICE THROUGH FAULTLINES

In 2 studies, we investigated how groups with strong divisions may, paradoxically, help members to cope with injustice. We tested our theoretical predictions using a survey methodology and data from 57 (Study 1) and 36 (Study 2) workgroups across different industries. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that group faultlines weakened the positive relationship between perceived interpersonal injustice and psychological distress. Cooperative behaviors within subgroups mediated the interactive effect of faultlines and injustice with psychological distress.     

A COMPARISON OF THREE STAFF-MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES

Even though administrators must have effective staff-management procedures to ensure implementation of desired programs, many traditional staff-management procedures remain unevaluated. This study investigated the effectiveness of three such procedures. The administrator of an institution for the retarded (1) sent a memo instructing all staff to lead daily recreational activities, (2) sponsored a workshop teaching staff to lead such activities, and (3) assigned staff activity leaders and provided performance feedback to staff by publicly posting the daily average number of active residents on each ward. Neither the memo nor the workshops motivated staff to lead activities, but after staff were scheduled to lead such activities and given performance feedback, the average daily number of residents engaged in activities on four wards for 95 retarded persons increased from seven to 32. The administration of this facility has adopted similar procedures to maintain such activities on all wards.     

THREE COMPARATIVE MAPS OF THE HUMAN

Abstract. This article is a response to the 1994 Star Island conference on the "Decade of the Brain" from a Jewish perspective. After a brief introduction about the logical function of models and maps, I compare and contrast three models of the human: Ezekiel's vision of the chariot in the Hebrew Scriptures, Franz Rosenzweig's geometry of the human face in Der Stern der Erlosung (the Star of Redemption), and a standard anatomical picture of the human brain. Whereas Rosenzweigs face is seen to be compatible with Ezekiel's chariot, both are seen to be radically distinct from the implicit conception of what a human being is in modern medical science. I conclude with a suggestion that the differences are to be understood in terms of their different intended functions and express my hope for some new kind of model that will incorporate the functional advantages of both.     

LI CH'UN-FU'S THEORY OF HARMONIZATION OF THE THREE TEACHINGS

The importance of Li Ch'un-fu^a (or Li P'ing-shan) (1185–1231), a scholar-official of the Chin Dynasty, in the discussion of the relationship among the Three Teachings—Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism—has long been recognized by Japanese scholars such as Takao Giken, Tokiwa Dago, Nogami Shunjo and Kubota Ryoon about half a century ago, and more recently by Professor Jan Yun-hua in the West¹ While Li in the capacity of an harmonizer² of the Three Teachings has been alluded to by these scholars, his theory of harmonization has not been analysed nor has his position as an harmonizer been properly evaluated and appreciated. Up to now, Li Ch'un-fu has been better known as a defender of Buddhism and this for three reasons. First, Li was presented as such by Yeh-lu Ch'u-ts'ai^c (1189–1243), the one who propagated Li's major works after the latter's death³ Second, the Fo-tsu li-tai t'ung-tsar ^d (A Complete Record of Buddhas and Patriarchs Through the Ages ), by its biased selection of quotations from the Ming-tao-chi shuo^e (Discussions of the "Plaints on Too" ), Li's masterpiece and the only major extant work, again casts Li in the role of a defender of Buddhism⁴ For some time, this material from the Fo-tsu li-tai t'ung-tsai was the only easily accesible record of Li's writings and this succeeded in throwing scholars on a wrong trail. Third, the fact that Li was praised by Buddhists but ignored or belittled by Confucians contributed to the impression that he was a partisan of the Buddhists⁵.     

THREE VERSUS SIX REREADINGS OF PRACTICE PASSAGES

Although the literature clearly demonstrates that repeated readings result in immediate effects on students' performance on the intervention materials as well as long‐term benefits, data are less promising regarding its immediate generalization effects to similar materials. Using an alternating treatments design, the current study evaluated the effects of a multicomponent repeated reading intervention on generalization passages after students had read a passage three versus six times. Results indicated improvements in fluency as a result of both interventions, with slightly greater maintenance effects when students were given six opportunities to read passages.     

三种心理测量理论的信度观

目前,心理测量领域中主要存在三大理论派别。本文分别对这三种理论即经典测验理论、可概括性理论和项目反应理论作了简要介绍,着重分析这三种理论的信度观。文章讨论了这三种信度观的理论基础和研究方法,比较了它们的异同,指出经典测验理论存在的一些不足及概化理论和项目反应理论所作的改进。概化理论是对经典测验理论的扩展,它用多维的信度指标（概化系数）替代了经典测验理论的信度系数,项目反应理论则从信息量的角度出发,用项目信息函数、测验信息函数等指标更具体深入地反映项目、测验的测量可靠程度。     

SUPPRESSION OF SELF-STIMULATION: THREE ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES

Four boys with autistic-like behavior were treated for self-stimulatory behavior with three different treatment procedures—time-out, differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO), and overcorrection. All four boys showed a rapid response to the overcorrection procedure. Three boys demonstrated some evidence of decrement in responding with time-out. During the DRO procedure, one showed a modest decrease, two showed no change, but one exhibited a consistent increase in responding under this condition. A multiple baseline applied to one of the subjects failed to reveal any generalization of suppression from one setting to another. A strong but not perfect relationship was found between a frequency and a duration measure of self-stimulation. There was some evidence of negative side effects for one boy during overcorrection and for another during time-out. None of these negative side effects was enduring. There was also some indirect evidence that overcorrection facilitated appropriate play.     

INVESTIGATING THREE EXPLANATIONS OF WOMEN'S RELATIONSHIP AGGRESSION

This study investigated explanations of women's partner aggression in a sample of 358 women. Women completed measures of physical aggression, control, and fear. Three explanations of women's partner aggression were explored: (a) that its use is associated with fear, (b) that it is reciprocal, and (c) that it is coercive. Each explanation received partial support, with multivariate analysis showing that collectively they explained significant proportions of the variance in women's self-reported use of physical aggression toward their male partners. These results indicate that women's physical aggression toward male partners cannot be understood using a unitary explanation.     

THREE MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTIVE RATIOS

SJÖBERG, L. Three models for the analysis of subjective ratios. Scand. J. Psychol. , 12, 217–240.–Circular area and heaviness were judged under four response modes: free ratio, per cent, similarity, and multiple estimation. Three log linear models were suggested for these data, each new model bringing in more free parameters to be fitted and assuming less strict types of invariance of subjective values. The most demanding, and traditional, model frequently had to be rejected. This "inconsistency" could be attributed both to the factor of relative size of the two stimuli in a comparative judgment and to the fixed vs. free factor. As a byproduct it was found that the Eisler-Ekman "similarity equation" was not supported by these data.