Cognitive and Personality Characteristics of Masculinity and Femininity Predict Wayfinding Competence and Strategies of Men and Women

Bem (1974) reconceptualized masculinity and femininity as independent and orthogonal constructs that both men and women possess to varying degrees. This perspective was used as a starting point to investigate whether the contributions of gender-typed characteristics can help to account for commonly observed gender differences in wayfinding (the ability to identify one’s current location and successfully navigate to an unseen location in the environment) favoring men. We further divided gender-typed characteristics into cognitive and personality characteristics to assess their separate influence on wayfinding and explored whether gender-typed characteristics predicted self-reported use of masculine wayfinding strategies (i.e., orientation strategies) and self-reported wayfinding competence. Participants were 452 college women and men in a southern U.S. public university. They completed the Gender-Stereotypic Characteristics questionnaire (Diekman and Eagly 2000), a social comparison questionnaire (created by the authors), a wayfinding strategy questionnaire (Lawton 1994), and a wayfinding competence questionnaire (Hegarty et al. 2002). For both men and women, higher masculine cognitive characteristics significantly correlated with greater use of orientation wayfinding strategies typical of men. For men, both higher masculine and feminine cognitive characteristics predicted better overall wayfinding competence whereas for women, only higher masculine cognitive characteristics predicted better overall wayfinding competence. For both men and women, higher feminine personality characteristics predicted poorer wayfinding competence. These results demonstrated the importance of considering cognitive and personality characteristics of masculinity and femininity in explaining individual differences in wayfinding.     

Political Ideology Outdoes Personal Experience in Predicting Support for Gender Equality

Indices of gender equality provide an inconsistent picture of current gender inequality in countries with relatively high equality. We examined women's and men's subjectively perceived gender inequality and their support for gender equality in the general population and in politicians, respectively, in three countries with relatively high gender equality: the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany (total N = 1,612). In both women's and men's perceptions, women were treated more unequally than men. However, the inequality that women perceived was larger than the inequality men perceived. Additionally, women reported they personally experience less inequality than women as a group (person-group discrepancy). Finally, women's and men's left/liberal (vs. right/conservative) political ideology turned out to be a relatively more powerful predictor of support for gender equality than perceived personal and societal inequality. We discuss reasons for why political ideology emerged as the strongest predictor of equality support and sketch out implications for policy efforts toward promoting gender equality.     

Gender Differences in Psychological Distress Among Immigrants from the Former Soviet Union

In this study we compared rates and correlates of psychological distress among immigrant women and men from the former Soviet Union. A demographic, migration, and social network questionnaire and the Symptom Checklist-90-R were administered to 935 female and 706 male immigrants. Older age and less time in the United States predicted distress in both gender groups. However, having less education, leaving relatives behind, and not being sponsored by friends or a religious organization predicted greater distress for women. Women reported significantly more distress than men except for those men who were married and retired.     

性别、寻路策略与导航方式对寻路行为的影响

本研究探讨了两种寻路策略与三种导航方式对寻路行为绩效的影响并分析了该效应的性别差异。实验被试120名, 实验结果显示：在VR迷宫场景中寻路, 对男性而言, 定向策略的使用情况是影响导航方式绩效的重要因素。对不擅长使用定向策略的男性而言, 标志导航最佳, 标志与YAH地图并存时次之, YAH地图导航最差。其中, 标志导航与YAH地图导航绩效差异显著。而对擅长使用定向策略的男性而言, 导航方式的类型对寻路绩效的影响不显著。导航方式的类型对女性寻路影响显著, 其中, 标志导航最佳, 标志与YAH地图并存时次之, YAH地图导航最差。该研究结果可为导航支持系统的界面设计提供依据。     

AVOIDANCE STRATEGY USE IN THE INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS OF WOMEN AND MEN FROM MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES

Avoidance strategy use refers to the techniques that people use to deal with unwelcome requests from other individuals. Previous research has shown that avoidance strategies in intimate relationships vary along two dimensions: compliance and bilateral dimensions. To determine whether individuals from Mexico and the United States differ in their use of these avoidance strategies with their intimate partners, a study was conducted on males and females from Mexico and the United States. The results indicated that women from the United States reported using more nonverbal disapproval and voices objections types of avoidance strategies with their intimate partners than did women from Mexico and men from both the United States and Mexico. The discussion focuses on the use of social influence strategies among men and women from Mexico and the United States.     

Relationships among individualism--collectivism, gender, and ingroup/outgroup status, and responses to conflict: a study in China and the United States

Responses to conflict were studied in samples of college students from a highly collectivistic society (China, n = 207) and a highly individualistic society (United States n = 209). As predicted, the collectivistic society reported more conflict-reducing behaviors and less verbal or physical aggression. However, the effect of individualism/collectivism was moderated by both the ingroup/outgroup status of the target and gender of the participant. Chinese and US women did not differ on any measure. However, of the four groups, Chinese men reported the most conflict-reducing behaviors and the least physical aggression, whereas US men reported the fewest conflict-reducing behaviors and the greatest physical aggression. As predicted, conflict-reducing behaviors were more common in the ingroup condition and both verbal and physical aggression was more common in the outgroup condition. However, the latter were moderated by gender of the participant. US men reported greater physical aggression than any other group. Neither gender nor society had any effect on the level of indirect aggression. There were no gender or individualism/collectivism effects on indirect aggression. Observed gender effects were attributed to differences in how collectivistic and individualistic societies conceptualize masculinity. The effect sizes associated with the ingroup/outgroup condition were consistently and substantially larger than effect sizes associated with individualism/collectivism or gender.     

Preference between onset predictable and unpredictable administrations of 20% carbon-dioxide-enriched air: implications for better understanding the etiology and treatment of panic disorder

Predictability of aversive events impacts the development and maintenance of anxiety, particularly panic disorder. Although animal studies typically have found a preference for signaled (predictable) over unsignaled (unpredictable) aversive events, results of research with human participants have been less clear. Using a panic-relevant paradigm, the authors examined predictability preference with humans as a function of anxiety sensitivity and gender during repeated administrations of 20% carbon-dioxide-enriched air. Participants preferred predictable administrations, with high-anxiety individuals showing greater preference than low-anxiety individuals and women showing greater preference than men. In addition to providing information to better understand human predictability preference for panic-related events, results also may aid in determining the applicability of predictability to the cognitive-behavioral treatment of panic disorder.     

ENVISIONING ONESELF AS A LEADER: COMPARISONS OF WOMEN AND MEN IN SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATES

In an examination of aspirations for leadership in the United States and Spain, male and female students envisioned themselves as a chief executive officer, vice president, or mid-level manager in an industry with a feminine image (clothing manufacturing) or a masculine image (auto manufacturing). Although men and women perceived these roles as equally positive, women perceived them as less possible and less facilitative of close relationships and gender relationships. Other gender effects included more positive perceptions of the roles by women in the feminine industry and by men in the masculine industry. Cross-nationally men perceived the roles as more positive than women did only in Spain, and U.S. students perceived the roles as more possible than Spanish students did.     

Gender differences in social support for socially anxious individuals

Given that social anxiety disorder is a common, chronic, debilitating disorder and socially anxious women appear to have different experiences related to social development and social support than men, it is essential that the gender differences in social anxiety and social support be understood. The present study examined perceived social support quantity and satisfaction in 23 women and 28 men seeking treatment for social anxiety disorder. Contrary to expectations, men and women did not differ on measures of social support. However, younger, unmarried women reported having smaller social support networks and less satisfaction with their social support networks than older, married women. Analyses of socially anxious men did not reveal such a pattern. The current study provides preliminary evidence that younger, single women have social support networks that are less satisfying than the social support networks of older, married women. Inclusion of social support modules within a cognitive behavioral treatment approach for social anxiety disorder may be warranted, particularly for young, unmarried women.     

Gender Differences in Social Support for Socially Anxious Individuals

Given that social anxiety disorder is a common, chronic, debilitating disorder and socially anxious women appear to have different experiences related to social development and social support than men, it is essential that the gender differences in social anxiety and social support be understood. The present study examined perceived social support quantity and satisfaction in 23 women and 28 men seeking treatment for social anxiety disorder. Contrary to expectations, men and women did not differ on measures of social support. However, younger, unmarried women reported having smaller social support networks and less satisfaction with their social support networks than older, married women. Analyses of socially anxious men did not reveal such a pattern. The current study provides preliminary evidence that younger, single women have social support networks that are less satisfying than the social support networks of older, married women. Inclusion of social support modules within a cognitive behavioral treatment approach for social anxiety disorder may be warranted, particularly for young, unmarried women.     

空间焦虑与导航方式对寻路行为的影响

探讨了空间焦虑与导航方式对寻路行为的影响并分析了该效应的性别差异。实验被试96名,实验结果显示：在VR迷宫场景中寻路,对女性而言,空间焦虑与导航方式对寻路绩效影响显著。对空间焦虑较低的女性而言,标志导航最佳,标志与YAH地图并存时次之,YAH地图导航最差;对空间焦虑较高的女性而言,标志与YAH地图并存时效率最高,标志导航次之,YAH地图导航最差。对女性而言,YAH地图导航显著劣于其它两种导航方式。而对男性而言,空间焦虑与导航方式对寻路绩效的影响差异不显著。该研究结果可为导航支持系统的界面设计提供依据。     

Social anxiety, reasons for drinking, and college students

Recent research suggests that social anxiety may be associated with higher rates of alcohol problems in women, yet may be associated with lower levels of drinking in men. The current study investigated putative mechanisms that may underlie potential gender differences in the social anxiety-alcohol relationship. One hundred and eighteen college students (61.0% women) completed an interview assessing drinking behaviors and questionnaires measuring social anxiety, drinking motives, and drinking situations. Although college men and women both reported similar frequencies of drinking in positive situations and to enhance positive emotions, women reported drinking more often in negative situations and to cope with aversive emotions than men. Mediated moderation analyses suggested that women with social anxiety may be at greater risk of encountering adverse consequences because of their likelihood to drink to conform or to cope with the aversive affect they experience in negative situations. Conversely, when men experience high rates of adverse consequences, it may be due to drinking greater quantities of alcohol in positive situations. Highly socially anxious college men may drink less alcohol and experience fewer adverse consequences than their nonanxious or mildly anxious counterparts because they may find themselves in positive situations and drinking to enhance positive feelings less often, potentially due to avoidant behavior. These findings may help to explain why social anxiety serves as a potential risk factor for alcohol-related problems for college women, but a protective factor for college men.     

Premarital sexual, child rearing, and family attitudes of Iranian men and women in the United States and in Iran

Sexual, child rearing, and family attitudes of 160 Iranian immigrants in the United States (61 men, 99 women) and 97 Iranians (55 men, 42 women) in Iran were compared. Iranians in the United States in general, and women in particular, compared with their counterparts in Iran, expressed more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex and sex education, more tolerance toward homosexuality, and a greater acceptance of marital dissolution. Iranians in both countries assigned a high value to the maternal role and to family loyalty but did not endorse unrestricted freedom for youngsters. Influences of attitudinal disparity on interpersonal and family relationships are discussed, and implications for marriage counseling and family therapy are suggested.     

Attitudes Toward Violence Against Women: A Cross-Nation Study

An understanding of attitudes toward violence against women is vital for effective prevention strategies. In this study we examined attitudes regarding violence against women in samples of undergraduate women and men students from four countries: India, Japan, Kuwait, and the United States. Attitudes toward sexual assault and spousal physical violence differed between men and women and across the four countries. Variations in gender differences across countries indicated that, for attitudes regarding sexual assault of women in particular, sociocultural factors may be a stronger influence than gender. Findings suggest the importance of examining differences within the larger sociocultural context of political, historical, religious, and economic influences on attitudes toward gender roles and violence against women.     

Beliefs in Equality for Women and Men as Related to Economic Factors in Central and Eastern Europe and the United States

Do economic indicators predict the general level of support for gender equality? This question was investigated in a sample of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, a region that has been undergoing rapid economic changes since the early 1990s. In this overall sample of male and female college students from ten countries, including the United States as a comparison, the predicted association between stronger beliefs in gender role egalitarianism and positive economic factors was generally supported. Also, consistent with other research, women were more in support of gender equality than men were. There was no support for a predicted trend in less support for gender equality over the time period of the present study.     

Watching Aggressive, Attractive, Female Protagonists Shapes Gender Roles for Women Among Male and Female Undergraduate Viewers

The impact of exposure to media representations of aggressive, attractive, female protagonists on audiences?? gender role expectations for women was explored through a laboratory experiment with 122 undergraduates from a large university on the west coast of the United States. Participants viewed a segment of a major Hollywood motion picture that featured a female protagonist who was either highly attractive or less attractive and either highly aggressive or not aggressive. Viewing clips featuring a female protagonist who was both aggressive and stereotypically attractive led to greater endorsement of stereotypically feminine and stereotypically masculine gender role expectations for women. The effect on endorsement of stereotypically masculine expectations was partially mediated by the perception that the protagonist was a good role model for women. Although women endorsed both feminine and masculine gender role expectations for women more strongly than men, the effects of exposure to aggressive, attractive, female protagonists were similar for both male and female participants. Results are discussed in terms of gender stereotype activation and superwoman expectations for women.     

Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment

This study examines the relations among sex role trait and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment in order to test traditional and contemporary perspectives regarding the adjustment implications of stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations. Measures of sex role personality traits and behaviors and scales assessing depression, anxiety, and social maladjustment were administered to 235 college men and women. In addition, subjects completed measures of gender identity and gender adequacy. Contrary to traditional perspectives, androgynous men and women and cross-sex-typed women were no less well adjusted than sex-typed individuals. However, consistent with traditional perspectives, men who were low in masculine characteristics (and men and women low in both masculine and feminine characteristics) did appear less well adjusted on measures of depression, anxiety, and social maladjustment. Furthermore, low masculinity men had less secure gender identities. No such gender identity disturbances were found in women.