A strong developmental theory of field dependence-independence

Assume an X-linked gene in two alleles mediates performance on field dependent-independent tests such as the rod-and-frame test. Only the recessive gene with relative frequency q facilitates field independence. Other genotypes lead to field dependence. Under a simple genetic model, field dependence-independence may be viewed as outcomes of a discrete random variable B with field independent and dependent probabilities π_iq and 1 ? π_iq for men, and π_iq² and 1 ? π_iq² for women, respectively. The parameter π_i is a maturational ageindexed parameter, 0 < π_i ≤ 1, monotonically increasing with development until maturity when π_k = 1. Observations of performance are made on a random variable W of the form W = B + N, where N is normal in distribution independent of B; N represents a composite of influences including error. The model implies testable age-related between- and within-sex predictions regarding E(W) and Var(W), predictions which appear to coincide with major empirical findings; it also generates novel predictions. For instance, W is a mixture of normals distribution. The model is briefly evaluates in two data sets.     

Developmental trends in free classification: Evidence for a new conceptualization of perceptual development

Two studies are reported to explore the hypothesis that young children perceive integrally some stimuli that older children perceive separably. In both, kinder-garteners, second graders, and fifth graders (approximately 5, 8, and 11 years old) are required to classify sets of stimuli that vary in size and brightness. Triads are used in Experiment 1 and tetrads are used in Experiment 2. Also, in Experiment 2, second classifications, judgments of which classification is “best,” and verbal justifications for classifications are obtained. The general finding is that the kinder-garten data systematically implicate integrality of size and brightness while the fifth-grade data systematically implicate separability of size and brightness. The second-grade data are more ambiguous. Issues related to refining the developmental hypothesis and to extending its supportive data base are considered in a final discussion.     

Concurrent validity of the WISC-R factor scores

This study investigated the efficacy of predicting academic achievement as measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test using the factor scores of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised as potential predictors. Both instruments were administered to 200 school children referred for psychological evaluations. Factor scores for the WISC-R were computed according to equations provided by Gutkin (1978). These factor scores then were regressed in a stepwise manner on the Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic standard scores from the Wide Range Achievement Test. Stepwise regressions also were performed using the traditional Verbal and Performance IQs as the potential predictors. A comparison was made between the results obtained by use of the factors or the more common scores. The results indicated that the Freedom From Distractibility factor score significantly aided in the prediction of Reading and Spelling achievement and was of primary importance in predicting Arithmetic achievement. When the stepwise results using the different scores were contrasted, the factor scores accounted for appreaciably more variance in Arithmetic than did the traditional Verbal and Performance IQs. Derived regression equations are reported along with a discussion of the interpretability of the Freedom From Distractibility factor.     

Conditioned enhancement of human's liking for flavor by pairing with sweetness

This paper reports a procedure, like classical conditioning, that produces enhancement of liking for flavors by humans. The procedure is “pairing” of a relatively neutral flavor with sugar (a hedonically positive taste). Specifically, subjects drank 24 small samples of flavor A sweetened and 24 small samples of flavor B unsweetened. They were then tested for their liking for flavors A and B, both sweetened and unsweetened. In three different studies, varying in a number of aspects of stimulus presentations and context, a relative enhancement in liking for flavor A appeared both on the day of exposure and 1 week later. An absolute enhancement in liking of flavor B (a “mere exposure” effect) also occurred in two of the three experiments.     

Critical procedural variables related to the physiological effects of progressive relaxation: a review.

Twenty-five investigations of the physiological effects of progressive relaxation training were classified according to whether relaxation was found to be superior or equivalent to control conditions. The two sets of studies differed significantly on number of training sessions and in the use of taped vs live administration of training, and they tended to differ in the use of normal vs patient samples. The likelihood of producing significant physiological reductions via progressive relaxation appears to be greater when multi-session, subject-controlled training is conducted with subjects for whom physiological activity contributes to a presenting. clinical problem.     

The infant's acquisition of knowledge of bimodally specified events

Four-month-old infants viewed, for a duration of several minutes, two objects that bounced in synchrony with two percussion sounds. This synchrony was the only information tying each sound to its respective object. During the viewing the infants learned about the relationships between sound and object. Learning was revealed in two ways. In a search test, infants looked for an object when its sound was played. In a transfer test, infants' declining interest in a sound presented alone generalized to the visible object that the sound specified. Studies that reversed the spatial locations of the objects revealed that sound-object learning, rather than place or response learning, guided infants' perceptual exploration.     

A developmental study of attribute encoding in free recall

In two studies, subjects from second-grade, sixth-grade, and college were presented lists of unrelated words for single-trial free recall. Embedded in the list were critical items that were either semantically or phonemically related or else were completely unrelated. The sets of related items were either massed or distributed in the longer list. For second-graders, recall of Phonemic words was better than recall of Semantic words while the reverse was true for sixth-graders. Recall of Semantic distributed words by second-graders and of Phonemic distributed words by sixth-graders did not differ from recall of unrelated words. College students recalled Phonemic and Semantic words equally well and all related words better than unrelated words. Developmental trends were seen in the salience of particular attributes and in the utilization of low salient attributes.