Stimulus learning versus response learning in a discriminated punishment situation

The suppression of bar pressing under two kinds of conditions was compared. Under one condition the response was occasionally punished by shock in the presence of a signal. Suppression to the signal was quickly acquired, indicating rapid learning about the signal-shock relationship (stimulus learning). Under the other condition the response was occasionally punished in the presence of the signal but additional free shocks were given in the absence of the signal. The slow acquisition of suppression found in this case indicated that there was, at best, only gradual learning about the response-shock relationship (response learning).     

The sentence-verification paradigm: A case study of two conflicting aproaches to individual differences

The contrasting approaches of differential psychology and cognitive psychology to the same individual differences data are outlined. Using illustrative data from the Clark and Chase (1972) sentence-picture verification task, four loci of conflict between these two disciplines are identified. These areas of conflict center around issues of (1) theory versus measurement, (2) meaningfulness versus reliability, (3) linearity of relationships, and (4) discontinuities in performance. We conclude on the basis of observed incompatibilities that a simple derivation of differential psychology from cognitive psychology is not likely, but separate development of complementary theories may be possible.     

Leading questions and the eyewitness report

A total of 490 subjects, in four experiments, saw films of complex, fast-moving events, such as automobile accidents or classroom disruptions. The purpose of these experiments was to investigate how the wording of questions asked immediately after an event may influence responses to questions asked considerably later. It is shown that when the initial question contains either true presuppositions (e.g., it postulates the existence of an object that did exist in the scene) or false presuppositions (e.g., postulates the existence of an object that did not exist), the likelihood is increased that subjects will later report having seen the presupposed object. The results suggest that questions asked immediately after an event can introduce new—not necessarily correct—information, which is then added to the memorial representation of the event, thereby causing its reconstruction or alteration.     

Role and justice considerations in the attribution of responsibility to a rape victim

This study was designed to assess the extent to which social role and “just world” considerations would affect perceptions and attributions of responsibility to a rape victim. The rape victim was either a topless-bottomless dancer, a social worker, or a Catholic nun, and she was either acquainted or unacquainted with her assailant. In the acquainted condition, the dancer was attributed the greatest and the nun the least amount of responsibility, indicating that social role factors can govern the range of attributional judgments which might be made in any given instance. However, unacquainted victims were ascribed more responsibility for the rape than were acquainted victims, a difference which was significant when the victim was the nun. The latter findings are discussed in terms of Lerner's just world hypothesis. Significant sex differences were found in subjects' perceptions of and responses to the rape incident and, contrary to earlier findings, no relationship was found between victim attractiveness and punitiveness toward the wrongdoer.     

Trait attributions and defense against insult from a dissimilar other

It was hypothesized that subjects would prefer to blame a character assault on negative ability characteristics of a dissimilar attacker as opposed to negative motivational characteristics in order to escape responsibility for the attack. It was reasoned that because we generally think of ourselves as having less potential influence over the abilities as opposed to the motivations of another person, it might be possible to diminish one's responsibility for another's behavior by attributing that behavior to that person's ability characteristics. Subjects in this experiment responded either to an insulting or noninsulting stimulus person who was either similar or dissimilar by selecting from a list of both motivational and ability bipolar trait dimensions, those dimensions they would most prefer to use in rating the stimulus person. As predicted, subjects responding to an insulting and dissimilar stimulus person showed a significantly greater preference for ability trait dimensions than subjects in the other conditions combined and also disliked the stimulus person more. The significance of these results for defensive attribution processes and phenomena such as racism and sexism are discussed.     

Construct validity of four basic Vocational Interest factors

To find evidence of the generalizability of four interest factors established for tests within the Roe-Holland framework, factor scores derived from a Vocational Interest Inventory grounded in Roe's system were correlated with the empirically based Strong-Campbell Occupational scale scores. For this sample of 300 counseling clients, a majority of the hypothesized relations were found, and arranging the occupations along these bipolar dimensions both sharpened the definitions of the factors and provided an additional interpretive aid for counseling.     

Children's use of sequence information in partially predictable reaction-time sequences

Second-, fourth-, and sixth-grade children and adults performed a four-choice reaction time task with partially predictable sequences and 250-, 500-, and 750-msec response-to-stimulus intervals. The relative advantage for in-sequence as opposed to out-of-sequence events was independent of the response-to-stimulus interval for all ages. Children, but not adults, were slower for nonrepeated than repeated out-of sequence events and this advantage for repeated signals decreased as age increased. A second experiment extended the range of intervals tested to zero. Second graders and adults responded to four-choice partially predictable sequences with 0-, 250-, and 500-msec response-to-stimulus intervals. As in the first experiment, the difference between in-sequence and out-of-sequence events did not vary with the response-to-stimulus interval. The results suggest that both children and adults are able to process advance sequence probability information about a subsequent event in parallel with an ongoing response.     

What it means to be general cultural

Published and unpublished research with the Vocational Interest Inventory based on Anne Roe's interest scheme supported separating the General Cultural area out of the RIASEC framework. It emerged as a distinct fusion of certain verbal-artistic and social tendencies, and, as an occupational group, takes social scientists away from Roe's Science group. General Cultural provides a bridge in career counseling between interests and cognitive variables because of the repeated association of CUL scores with academic achievement and persistence.     

The effects of behavior rehearsal and feedback on the acquisition of problem-solving skills in distressed and nondistressed couples

Couples who were paid to participate in an experimental marital enrichment program were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions or to a control group. All groups received training in solving marital problems, but the groups differed according to how they were trained; some received feedback (FB) on their previous taped performances, some had the opportunity to practice the skills suggested by the therapist (BR), some had both (complete treatment), and some simply were presented with instructions. Changes in problem-solving skills were assessed by behavioral observations of the frequency of positive problem-solving behavior before and after treatment, and global ratings of problem-solving effectiveness made by trained raters. In general, the complete treatment condition produced greater changes from pre- to post-test than any other condition. Couples in this condition showed significantly greater increases in positive behavior than any other group, and on global ratings of problem-solving skills they evidenced the greatest improvement, although on this measure they did not improve significantly more than BR couples.     

Freezing as an avoidance response: Another look at the operant-respondent distinction

Groups of rats were trained with shock either contingent on freezing (punishment procedure) or contingent on not freezing (avoidance procedure). Although the different contingencies produced different levels of freezing behavior, these levels were attained immediately rather than over a number of trials. This result, together with the results of control rats, suggest that while freezing can be controlled by both punishment and avoidance procedures, in both cases the effects on freezing are due to elicitation rather than learning.     

Stimulus and response contributions to the children's reaction-time repetition effect

Adults and 8-, 10-, 12-, and 14-year olds completed a serial reaction-time task with two stimuli mapped to each of two responses and 100-, 500-, and 1000-msec response-stimulus intervals (RSIs). Trials were classified as (1) identical (same stimulus and same response on two consecutive trials), (2) response equivalent (different stimulus but same response on two consecutive trials), or (3) different (different stimulus and different response on two consecutive trials). Identical and different trials were compared as a general indication of repetition effects. Response-equivalent minus identical reaction time identified stimulus contributions, and different minus response-equivalent reaction time identified response contributions. Adults received a repetition advantage at all RSIs and children received a repetition advantage at 500- and 1000- but not 100-msec RSIs. Stimulus contributions accounted for the repetition effect for both adults and children. At the 500- and 1000-msec RSIs, both the overall repetition effect and stimulus contribution were positive and decreased in magnitude as age increased. The response contribution was independent of RSI and was negative for 8- and 10-year-olds and near zero or positive for older performers. At the longer RSIs, positive stimulus contributions were sufficient to overcome the negative response contributions present for younger children.     

Individual differences in aggressive responses to attack: Internal-external locus of control and field dependence-independence

Two experiments assessed the effect of individual differences on aggression. In both studies subjects were exposed to opponents in the competitive reaction time task who decreased the intensity of their attack from high to low, remained constantly moderate in their attack, or increased the intensity of their attack from low to high. In the first experiment Internal Locus of Control subjects consistently set high intensity shocks in response to high intensity attack and low shocks in response to mild attack. External subjects showed relatively minor variations in their aggressive responses to varying intensities of attack. In the second experiment field-independent subjects set more intense shocks than field-dependent subjects only in the Decreasing attack condition.