Relationships between assessment and treatment within a behavioral perspective

Three alternative strategies to link assessment and treatment within a behavioral perspective are described. First is the functional analysis in which the maintaining variables of the target behavior are identified in assessment and modified in treatment. Although this strategy appears to be frequently successful based on positive treatment outcome, critical tests are seldom done: hypothesized functional analyses are not tested prior to intervention; nor is treatment outcome based on one functional analysis pitted against treatment outcome based on an alternative functional analysis. The second strategy is the keystone target behavior strategy. From among multiple possible target behaviors, one is selected for intervention that produces therapeutic response covariation. The third strategy is the diagnostic strategy. A treatment is selected for a particular client based on its overall success in treating a particular disorder. Empirical comparisons are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of these different strategies, linking assessment and treatment for different disorders.Portions of this paper were presented as invited addresses at the meetings of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Philadelphia, November 1984, and of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, August 1986.     

Toward a Methodology of Experimental Analysis and Treatment of Aberrant Classroom Behaviors

A behavior analytic methodlogy for linking assessment and intervention for aberrant classroom behavior is presented. This methodology assists the behavioral consultant and classroom teacher in looking at the environmental variables that support undesirable behavior in three ways: structurally, functionally, or through some combination of the two approaches. Treatment strategies arising from the analysis may then be implemented. The methodology consists of the following steps: (a) problem identification, (b) data collection to generate hypotheses, (c) formulation of hypotheses regarding structural and functional relations, (d) design of analogue conditions to test the hypotheses, (e) conducting the analysis, and (f) treatment development and evaluation. An example of a structural analysis and treatment of the stereotypic behavior of an 8-year-old girl functioning in the severe-profound range of mental retardation conducted by her teacher in a special education classroom is presented.     

What Invariance Is and How to Test for It

Causal assessment is the problem of establishing whether a relation between (variable) X and (variable) Y is causal. This problem, to be sure, is widespread across the sciences. According to accredited positions in the philosophy of causality and in social science methodology, invariance under intervention provides the most reliable test to decide whether X causes Y. This account of invariance (under intervention) has been criticised, among other reasons, because it makes manipulations on the putative causal factor fundamental for the causal methodology; consequently, the argument goes, the account is ill-suited to those contexts where manipulations are not performed, for instance, the social sciences. The article aims to extend the account of invariance (under intervention), in a way that manipulations on the putative causal factors are not methodologically fundamental, and yet invariance remains key for causal assessment both in experimental and non-experimental contexts.     

The Student Guided Functional Assessment Interview: An Analysis of Student and Teacher Agreement

Functional assessment strategies are used to guide the treatment of problem behavior with individuals who have severe disabilities. Also, researchers have extended functional assessment applications to individuals with emotional and behavioral disabilities. One such extension is the use of students as informants in the functional assessment process. The present study assessed an interview tool designed to elicit information directly from students regarding their problem behaviors. We examined agreement between students and their teachers. Results showed high agreement on the causes and functions of problem behavior with mixed agreement on support plan recommendations.     

Evaluation of satiation‐resistant head rocking

The persistent head rocking of a woman diagnosed with profound mental retardation was examined during three separate assessments. First, a functional analysis demonstrated that head rocking was maintained independent of social consequences. Next, an antecedent assessment revealed that exposure to alternative sources of stimulation reduced head rocking, but only when the stimulation was being provided. A third assessment, which consisted of an enriched environment, replicated the findings of the first two assessments. Across all three assessments, head rocking persisted at extremely high rates when alternative stimulation was unavailable and returned to high levels immediately following the removal of alternative sources of stimulation. An environmental enrichment (EE) intervention, which was based on the results of the functional analysis and antecedent assessment, resulted in a 70% reduction in the occurrence of the head rocking. In addition, a social validity assessment revealed that the participant's caregivers rated the EE intervention as both effective and socially acceptable. The particular challenges that satiation‐resistant aberrant behavior presents for behavior analysts are addressed. Specific suggestions for research on intervention strategies for persistent aberrant behavior are also provided. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Increasing accuracy of rock-climbing techniques in novice athletes using expert modeling and video feedback

Several studies have examined the efficacy of behavior analytic coaching strategies in sports to increase performance fluency. Rock climbing is a multifaceted sport requiring mastery of several complex behavior chains in order to successfully navigate climbing surfaces. To date, most investigations have focused on the physiological aspects of rock climbing, as opposed to training specific rock-climbing movements. In this replication and extension, researchers used a multiple baseline design across skills to examine an expert video modeling plus video and verbal feedback training package on foundational rock-climbing skills of novice adult climbers. Results demonstrated that all participants showed an increase in accurate performance for all three skills that were targeted in the intervention.     

Evaluation of a Targeted Intervention Within a Schoolwide System of Behavior Support

A recommended component of comprehensive behavior support in schools is a targeted intervention designed to efficiently and effectively meet the support needs of students who are not responding to preventive schoolwide intervention strategies (Sugai, Horner et al., 2000; Walker et al., 1996). This study provides a fine-grained analysis using a multiple baseline across students design with the targeted intervention as the independent variable, and both classroom problem behavior and academic engagement as dependent variables. The multiple baseline analysis documents a modest functional relationship between implementation of the intervention and reduction in problem behavior. Implications for the design of behavior support in schools and the development of future research are provided.     

Children Use Temporal Cues to Learn Causal Directionality

The ability to learn the direction of causal relations is critical for understanding and acting in the world. We investigated how children learn causal directionality in situations in which the states of variables are temporally dependent (i.e., autocorrelated). In Experiment 1, children learned about causal direction by comparing the states of one variable before versus after an intervention on another variable. In Experiment 2, children reliably inferred causal directionality merely from observing how two variables change over time; they interpreted Y changing without a change in X as evidence that Y does not influence X. Both of these strategies make sense if one believes the variables to be temporally dependent. We discuss the implications of these results for interpreting previous findings. More broadly, given that many real‐world environments are characterized by temporal dependency, these results suggest strategies that children may use to learn the causal structure of their environments.     

The explanatory potential of artificial societies

It is often claimed that artificial society simulations contribute to the explanation of social phenomena. At the hand of a particular example, this paper argues that artificial societies often cannot provide full explanations, because their models are not or cannot be validated. Despite that, many feel that such simulations somehow contribute to our understanding. This paper tries to clarify this intuition by investigating whether artificial societies provide potential explanations. It is shown that these potential explanations, if they contribute to our understanding, considerably differ from potential causal explanations. Instead of possible causal histories, simulations offer possible functional analyses of the explanandum. The paper discusses how these two kinds explanatory strategies differ, and how potential functional explanations can be appraised.     

The Application of Latent Curve Analysis to Testing Developmental Theories in Intervention Research

The effectiveness of a prevention or intervention program has traditionally been assessed using time-specific comparisons of mean levels between the treatment and the control groups. However, many times the behavior targeted by the intervention is naturally developing over time, and the goal of the treatment is to alter this natural or normative developmental trajectory. Examining time-specific mean levels can be both limiting and potentially misleading when the behavior of interest is developing systematically over time. It is argued here that there are both theoretical and statistical advantages associated with recasting intervention treatment effects in terms of normative and altered developmental trajectories. The recently developed technique of latent curve (LC) analysis is reviewed and extended to a true experimental design setting in which subjects are randomly assigned to a treatment intervention or a control condition. LC models are applied to both artificially generated and real intervention data sets to evaluate the efficacy of an intervention program. Not only do the LC models provide a more comprehensive understanding of the treatment and control group developmental processes compared to more traditional fixed-effects models, but LC models have greater statistical power to detect a given treatment effect. Finally, the LC models are modified to allow for the computation of specific power estimates under a variety of conditions and assumptions that can provide much needed information for the planning and design of more powerful but cost-efficient intervention programs for the future.     

Relative Efficacy of Behavioral Interventions in Preschool Children Attending Head Start

This study tested the relative efficacy of two interventions for children referred for consultation services due to problem behavior in the classroom. Teachers nominated children for participation due to frequent disruptive behaviors, such as inappropriate vocalizations and off-task behavior. Four Black males from 3 to 4 years old who attended Head Start centers served as the participants. Each child received a functional assessment that included a teacher-completed functional assessment rating scale and a brief functional analysis. Following functional assessments, an alternating treatments design was used to test the relative efficacy of an intervention matched to function and the Mystery Motivator intervention, not matched to function. Results indicate that both the intervention matched to function and the Mystery Motivator intervention were superior to a no-intervention control condition, but the function-matched intervention was more effective than the Mystery Motivator intervention for reducing problem behaviors and increasing appropriate engagement for all four children. Results are discussed in terms of learning principles potentially responsible for differential efficacy, as well as implications for applied practice.     

Generalization of social skills to peer interactions in a child with language delays

Researchers in this study have attempted to determine whether integrating generalization promoting strategies into intervention procedures would enhance the generalization and maintenance of social skills to peer interactions in a preschoold child with language delays. This intervention took place in the natural environment of the day care facility where the child was enrolled. A multiple baseline across behaviors design addressed social response behavior, approach behavior, and play organizers. The intervention utilized a prompting and social reinforcement procedure with minimal adaptations of the onging classroom activities to systematically improve the target child's peer interactions. Several generalization promoting strategies were also used. Improvements in all three types of behavior and generalization of treatment effects across persons, settings, and time were observed. These results lend support for the value of integrating several generalization promoting strategies pre-experimentally into the intervention instead of relying on post hoc evaluation of intervention. ©1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Comparison of Function-Based Differential Reinforcement Interventions for Children Engaging in Disruptive Classroom Behavior

This study provides a direct comparison of differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA). Participants included three children in center-based classrooms referred for functional assessments due to disruptive classroom behavior. Functional assessments included interviews and brief functional analyses. An alternating treatments design was used to evaluate the relative effectiveness of function-based DRO and DRA interventions. Results indicated that both intervention procedures effectively reduced disruptive behavior, but the DRA procedure consistently resulted in greater reductions in disruptive behavior across all participants. Results are discussed in terms of directions for future functional assessment and intervention research as well as implications for applied practice.     

A review of research and theory on the relation between oral reading rate and reading comprehension

We review the conceptual and empirical literature on the relation between oral reading rate and reading comprehension. Three lines of conceptual analysis converge on this relation: (a) application of basic behavior analytic principles suggests that fluent decoding should produce better reading comprehension through direct and indirect relations, (b) behavior analytic understanding of the importance of the rate of behavior as developed by Skinner, Lindsley and Haughton implies that higher reading rate contributes to improved comprehension, and (c) cognitive theory of automaticity explicitly states that high rate reading sets the stage for effective comprehension. A wealth of correlational evidence indicates that reading rate and reading comprehension covary. These results have been replicated across elementary grades and across a variety of measures of reading comprehension. However, experimental analyses have not convincingly demonstrated a functional relation between the two. Experimental work has yielded results that are mixed at best. Examination of experimental design issues shows that although this is not a simple relation to investigate, behavior analysts can make major contributions to understanding the possible functional relation between reading rate and reading comprehension.     

Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

ABSTRACT

It is estimated that there have been over 4,000 articles in the literature on the subject of attentional problems, addressing its etiology, epidemiology, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. This article reviews recent and relevant literature with an eye toward functional conclusions and linkages between assessment and intervention. The article concludes by providing a problem-solving model that integrates parent or teachers' referral concerns, reasons for these concerns, assessment methods, and intervention strategies. In the end, four definitive conclusions are drawn, and the importance of multimodal strategies that collaboratively involve home, school, and community settings is emphasized.     

Culture-sensitive functional analytic psychotherapy

Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) is defined as behavior-analytically conceptualized talk therapy. In contrast to the technique-oriented educational format of cognitive behavior therapy and the use of structural mediational models, FAP depends on the functional analysis of the moment-to-moment stream of interactions between client and therapist. This distinctive feature makes FAP particularly sensitive to the challenges posed by cultural differences between client and therapist. Core elements of FAP philosophy are invoked to argue that this vulnerability paradoxically implies an increased ability to capture and use relevant issues in the therapy process with culturally different clients. This argument focuses FAP's preference for concrete behavior over theoretical modeling, its emphasis on functional principles rather than topographically defined techniques, and its inclusion of the therapist's behavior in the assessment of clients' clinically relevant behavior. Suggestions are given concerning how academic and practical training and personal experience may be used to foster sound multicultural practice.     

A dual-process approach to health risk decision making: The prototype willingness model

Although dual-process models in cognitive, personality, and social psychology have stimulated a large body of research about analytic and heuristic modes of decision making, these models have seldom been applied to the study of adolescent risk behaviors. In addition, the developmental course of these two kinds of information processing, and their relation to the development of self-regulation are not well understood at this time. The current paper reviews what leading dual-process models have to say about the development of analytic and heuristic decision making, and their implications for adolescent risk behavior. In addition, it reviews research on the prototype willingness model of adolescent decision making—a dual-process model designed specifically to address non-intentional, but volitional adolescent risk behavior. It also discusses the implications of dual-process models for intervention research.     

Randomized controlled trial of an applied behavior analytic intervention for food selectivity in children with autism spectrum disorder

Food selectivity is a common problem for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD; Schreck, Williams, & Smith, 2004). Behavior‐analytic interventions have the most empirical support for feeding disorders (Sharp, Jaquess, Morton, & Miles, 2011). However, there are no randomized controlled trials that have evaluated its effects with a well‐defined cohort of children with ASD. In the current investigation, we randomly assigned 6 young children with ASD and food selectivity to either an applied behavior analytic intervention or a wait‐list control. We used a crossover randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of a multicomponent applied behavior analytic intervention on independent acceptance and mouth clean of 16 novel foods. We subsequently exposed the wait‐list control group to the intervention. We also evaluated the effects of the intervention on individual participants with single‐case designs. The percentage of independent acceptance and mouth clean increased for the applied behavior analytic intervention group, but not for the wait‐list control group until we implemented the intervention.