Young Adult Educational and Vocational Outcomes of Children Diagnosed with ADHD

Decreased success at work and educational attainment by adulthood are of concern for children with ADHD given their widely documented academic difficulties; however there are few studies that have examined this empirically and even fewer that have studied predictors and individual variability of these outcomes. The current study compares young adults with and without a childhood diagnosis of ADHD on educational and occupational outcomes and the predictors of these outcomes. Participants were from the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS), a prospective study with yearly data collection. Significant group differences were found for nearly all variables such that educational and occupational attainment was lower for adults with compared to adults without histories of childhood ADHD. Despite the mean difference, educational functioning was wide-ranging. High school academic achievement significantly predicted enrollment in post-high school education and academic and disciplinary problems mediated the relationship between childhood ADHD and post-high school education. Interestingly, ADHD diagnosis and disciplinary problems negatively predicted occupational status while enrollment in post-high school education was a positive predictor. Job loss was positively predicted by a higher rate of academic problems and diagnosis of ADHD. This study supports the need for interventions that target the child and adolescent predictors of later educational and occupational outcomes in addition to continuing treatment of ADHD in young adulthood targeting developmentally appropriate milestones, such as completing post-high school education and gaining and maintaining stable employment.     

Teachers’ sense of responsibility for educational outcomes and its associations with teachers’ instructional approaches and professional wellbeing

Teachers’ formal accountability and duties have been the focus of high-stakes educational reforms, for instance in the context of national accountability systems. Yet, teachers’ sense of personal (rather than formal) responsibility and willingness to assume responsibility for their teaching and students remains an understudied area. The main purpose of this study was to investigate contextual and person-specific predictors of teachers’ sense of personal responsibility, as well as the potential implications of teachers’ personal responsibility for their instructional approaches and wellbeing. A path analysis indicated that high school teachers (n = 287) who felt responsible for their teaching and students reported higher levels of work engagement and job satisfaction than less responsible teachers, and were more likely to endorse mastery-oriented instructional practices that emphasized student effort, task mastery, and individual growth. Teachers’ perceptions of their school’s social climate (teachers’ evaluations of their relationships with students), their sense of teaching self-efficacy, and incremental beliefs of intelligence emerged as positive predictors of teacher responsibility. Teacher responsibility partially mediated the positive effects of these predictors on teachers’ wellbeing and mastery-oriented instructional practices. The results suggest that both contextual (e.g., school climate) and person-specific (e.g., self-efficacy) factors can contribute to teachers’ sense of personal responsibility, and that responsibility, in turn, can have positive implications for teachers’ wellbeing and instructional practices. Directions for future research and practical implications are considered.     

Sex differences in children's time use

A sample of children (410 on a school day and 347 on a non-school day) was examined to determine differences in time spent in household work, leisure activities, school, paid work, personal care, and sleep by males and females. Males spent more time in leisure activities and less time in household work and personal care than females. Differences in time allocation appeared to be in accordance with traditional male-female roles. These patterns were established at early ages.     

Adolescent adaptation before,during and in the aftermath of the Great Recession in the USA

This study examines the impact of the “Great Recession” (from December 2007 to June 2009) on 8th and 10th graders in the USA, using annual nationally representative data from the Monitoring the Future study. Historical changes in youth adjustment (self‐esteem, depressed mood, risk taking, aggression and property crime), school achievement (grade point average [GPA], time spent on homework and educational expectations) and structured and unstructured activities (volunteering, employment, sports and evenings out for fun) were examined between 1991 and 2014. Overall, there were only slight changes in mean levels of adjustment, achievement and most youth activities. However, the percentage of youth working during the school year did decline during the Great Recession. Several longer‐term trends were also evident, though not directly tied to the Great Recession. These include an increase in GPA, a decrease in time spent on homework, rising educational expectations and more time spent volunteering. Future work should assess how the shift to unpaid work activities (e.g. volunteering and internships) among youth is impacting the transition from school to work in the contemporary economy, and whether the Great Recession had deleterious impacts for younger children or among youth whose parents lost work or had their homes foreclosed.     

The effects of sleep on episodic memory in older and younger adults

Evidence on sleep-dependent benefits for episodic memory remains elusive. Furthermore we know little about age-related changes on the effects of sleep on episodic memory. The study we report is the first to compare the effects of sleep on episodic memories in younger and older adults. Memories of stories and personal events were assessed following a retention interval that included sleep and following an equal duration of wakefulness. Both older and younger adults have superior memory following sleep compared to following wakefulness for both types of material. Amount of forgetting of personal events was less during wakefulness in older adults than in younger adults, possibly due to spontaneous rehearsal. Amount of time spent sleeping correlated highly with sleep benefit in older adults, suggesting that quantity of total sleep, and/or time spent in some stages of sleep, are important contributors to age-related differences in memory consolidation or protection from interference during sleep.     

Classroom quality as a predictor of first graders' time in non-instructional activities and literacy achievement

This study investigated how quality of the classroom learning environment influenced first grade students' (n = 533) time spent in two non-instructional classroom activities (off-task and in transition) and their subsequent literacy outcomes. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that higher classroom quality was related to higher student performance in reading comprehension and expressive vocabulary. Further, classroom quality predicted the amount of time students spent off-task and in transitions in the classroom, with slopes of change across the year particularly impacted. Mediation effects were detected in the case of expressive vocabulary such that the influence of classroom quality on students' achievement operated through students' time spent in these non-instructional activities. Results highlight the importance of overall classroom quality to how students navigate the classroom environment during learning opportunities, with subsequent literacy achievement impacted. Implications for policy and educational practices are discussed.     

Administrator Perceptions of Actual and Desired Time Spent by School Psychologists in Different Roles and Satisfaction with School Psychologists

Abstract

A total of 512 elementary and secondary administrators in Ohio were surveyed regarding their perceptions of the time spent by school psychologists in 15 role functions, the percentage of time they desired school psychologists to spend in these 15 roles, and their satisfaction with their school psychologist. Results indicated that administrators desired school psychologists to spend less time in assessment and administrative activities than they were perceived to be spending in these areas, and desired school psychologists to spend more time than they were perceived to be spending in all other roles surveyed. Six variables were found to be significant predictors of administrator satisfaction: discrepancy between actual and desired time spent administering and interpreting psychoeducational tests (negatively related), discrepancy between actual and desired time spent providing services to prevent student problems (negatively related), percentage of time spent working with parents and families (positively related), discrepancy between actual and desired time spent performing administrative duties (negatively related), discrepancy between actual and desired time spent conducting inservice activities (positively related), and discrepancy between actual and desired time spent counseling for career/vocational issues (negatively related). Results are discussed in terms of their implication for role expansion in school psychology.     

Brain training in older adults: evidence of transfer to memory span performance and pseudo-Matthew effects

In this study the effects of 'brain training' using the Nintendo DS Brain Training program were examined in two groups of older adults; the cognitive performance of an experimental group (n = 21) who were asked to use the Nintendo DS regularly over a 6-week period was compared with the control group (n = 20). Groups were matched on age (mean age = 74 years), education, computer experience, daily activities (time spent reading or watching television), and initial scores of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Analyses revealed that improvements were primarily in the Digit Span Test, specifically Digits Backwards. Although the Brain Training package appeared to have some efficacy, other factors such as perceived quality of life and perceived cognitive functioning were at least equally important in determining training outcomes. The implications of these findings for cognitive training are discussed.     

Role Function Differences Between School Psychologists Employed by School Districts and Regional Educational Agencies

ABSTRACT

This study investigated differences in role functioning of school psychologists employed by school districts and regional educational agencies (intermediate units). A total of 636 full time school psychologist practitioners in Pennsylvania were surveyed and asked to estimate the actual percentage of time they spent in assessment, counseling, consultation, research, clerical tasks, and administration, and the amount of time they desired to spend in each of these roles. Results indicated that school psychologists employed by districts spent more time in administrative tasks than school psychologists employed by intermediate units. No other statistically significant differences in roles between school psychologists employed by these two entities were identified. However, differences in the actual time spent in assessment (in favor of intermediate units) and desired time spent in administrative tasks (in favor of districts) approached statistical significance.     

Reducing Excessive Television Viewing

Excessive television watching among children can have several negative consequences, including exposure to frequent violent and aggressive scenes and limitations in their opportunities to engage in alternative educational and prosocial activities. In the present study, a youngster evidencing high levels of television viewing behavior was placed on a modified token economy: earned tokens were used to activate the television for set periods of time. With onset of the intervention, immediate and dramatic reductions in television viewing were noted. High levels returned during a return to baseline phase, but reductions again occured when the intervention was reimplmented. Positive second-order effects were noted in the child's school work, in the amounts of time the family spent together, and in the mother's perception of a social support variable.     

Early educational foundations for the development of civic responsibility: an African experience

An innovative curriculum designed to foster the development of social responsibility among pre-adolescent children was introduced at a rural Zambian primary school. The curriculum invoked Child-to-Child principles focusing on health education, advancing a synthesis of Western psychological theories and African cultural traditions. The teacher sought to democratize the educational process through cooperative learning in mixed-gender, mixed-social-class, and mixed-ability study groups. Learners engaged in community service activities and contributed to the nurturant care of younger children. Young adults interviewed seventeen years after completing the program recalled their experience and reflected on how it had promoted their personal agency, cooperative disposition, and civic responsibility in early adulthood.     

Father identification,achievement, and occupational behavior of rural youth: 10-year follow-up

Males from rural economically deprived school districts, who had previously been surveyed as high school seniors, again 1 year after graduation, and again 5 years after graduation, were surveyed a fourth and final time 10 years after high school graduation concerning their occupational status and aspirations, their marital status, their spouses' educational and occupational achievements, the importance of life roles, and their occupational and personal satisfactions. In the original study the participants had been divided into two groups, low-identification males (LIM) and high-identification males (HIM) based on independent evaluators' judgments of the adequacy of their fathers as identification models. Each group's responses to the survey were compared. The results indicate that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on the variables of optimism about the future, spouses' occupational achievements, role importance, occupational satisfaction, and personal satisfaction. There were statistically significant differences on the variables of occupational status, occupational aspirations, educational achievements, educational plans, marital status, and spouses' educational achievements. The results are discussed in the context of the three previous surveys. Over the 10-year period the occupational and educational achievements and aspirations have been significantly higher for the HIM group than for the LIM group. Equally consistent is the finding that over the 10-year period there has been no differences between the two groups in satisfaction with status.     

Personal and Organizational Characteristics of Employment Counselors

Eleven personal and organizational variables were measured in a large national sample of employment counselors. Data indicate that female counselors were younger than males, older counselors had higher educational levels than younger ones, and as the level of education increased, so did the number of professional association memberships and time spent in counseling activities. Employment counselors with first-line supervisors who had counseling experience tended to be older, spent more time in counseling activities, had higher education levels, and belonged to more professional associations than did counselors whose supervisors did not have counseling experience.     

Patterns of Daily Time Use of Young Adults With or Without First-Episode Psychosis

This study compared patterns of daily activities and satisfaction with time use of young adults with first-episode psychosis and healthy volunteers. Fifty young adults participated in retrospective structured interviews on time use. Young adults with first-episode psychosis spend more time in sleep, passive leisure, and personal care activities, and less in total productive activities and education. No difference appeared for leisure, paid work, and household work, or satisfaction with daily time use. Reasons underlying dissatisfaction with daily time use differed between the groups. Clinical and research implications are discussed.     

Health and educational outcomes of children who experienced severe neonatal medical complications.

To determine the long-term developmental and educational outcomes of a sample of low birthweight infants with intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), the authors conducted developmental assessments and interviews 8 years after the initiation of an early intervention project. At the time of the follow-up, 62% of the children were experiencing some developmental or behavior problems, with visual impairments, cerebral palsy, and attention deficits occurring most frequently. Grade of IVH and the number of days spent in the neonatal intensive care unit were the best predictors of later developmental delays. The sample also scored below average on school achievement; approximately 30% of those in school were eligible for special education services. These findings corroborate results from investigations with similar populations whose birth characteristics put them at risk for subsequent developmental delay.     

Social Validity Assessment of Mindfulness Education and Practices Among High School Students

The authors describe social validity assessment of mindfulness education and practices among high school students (N = 84) participating in a 10-week instructional program. The participants rated their satisfaction with and acceptance of several program components, content areas, and outcomes, as well as their engagement in specific mindfulness practices. Nearly all of the participants rated the program favorably, reported many beneficial effects, and anticipated future use of mindfulness in their lives. They did not routinely perform voluntary formal guided meditations beyond the classroom but did engage in informal mindfulness practices preceding certain activities (e.g., preparing for a test, athletic competition, performance event) and going to sleep at night. The authors discuss these findings and the implications for designing school-based mindfulness education programs.     

Adolescence and the Changing Context of Optimal Experience in Time: Italy 1986–2000

This study focused on the daily activities and related quality of experience of two distinct groups of Italian high school students analyzed in 1986 and 2000. Altogether, 120 participants, aged between 15 and 18, were administered the experience sampling method, a procedure providing on-line repeated samplings of daily time budget and associated quality of experience. In particular, attention was paid to optimal experience, characterized by a balance between environmental challenges and personal skills, intrinsic motivation, involvement, and well-being. In spite of the time gap, no major differences in the daily activity distribution were detected. Adolescents in both groups spent most of their time studying at school and at home, interacting, watching TV, carrying out maintenance, and engaging in structured leisure activities. The use of new technologies (computers, internet, mobile phones) emerged in the data gathered in 2000. As concerns the quality of experience, each daily activity showed a specific experiential profile recurring in both groups. Studying at home and engaging in structured leisure activities were primarily associated with optimal experience, as was using new technologies in 2000. These results shed light on students' preferential engagement in specific domains and allowed us to explore the active role of adolescents in shaping their future. Findings also highlighted the importance of providing adolescents with meaningful activities in order to foster their personal growth, well-being, and social integration.     

Effects of variation in teacher organization on classroom functioning

This study examined effects of variation in teacher organization on how time is spent in classrooms, focusing on time spent in transitions and instruction, including child skill by teacher organization interactions. Forty-four first-grade classrooms were observed three times over the school year. Timed narratives of each activity were recorded. “Orient-organize” referred to time teachers spent orienting students to classroom procedures or organizing the class for specific assignments, and included instructional clarity, where teachers described objectives of activities to students. Using hierarchical linear modeling, substantial variation across teachers in orient-organize was observed. Overall, classrooms spent less time in organization as the school year progressed. In addition, spending more time in organization was related to less time spent in transition. Students in classrooms that spent more time in organization in the fall also experienced greater amounts of time in child-managed activities in the spring. There was also an interaction between child vocabulary and amount of orient-organize in the winter. Students with lower vocabulary scores were more likely to be in classrooms that spent more time in spring child-managed activities if they continued to receive substantial amounts of orient-organize in the winter. The opposite was the case for students with high vocabulary skills.     

When Mothers’ Work Matters for Youths’ Daily Time Use: Implications of Evening and Weekend Shifts

Drawing upon the work-home resources model, this study examined the implications of mothers’ evening and weekend shifts for youths’ time with mother, alone, and hanging out with peers unsupervised, with attention to both the amount and day-to-day consistency of time use. Data came from 173 mothers who worked in the long-term care industry and their youths who provided daily diaries. Multilevel modeling revealed that youths whose mothers worked more evening shifts on average spent less time with their mothers compared to youths whose mothers worked fewer evening shifts. Youths whose mothers worked more weekend shifts, however, spent more time with their mothers and exhibited less consistency in their time in all three activity domains compared to youths whose mothers worked fewer weekend shifts. Girls, not boys, spent less time alone on days when mothers worked weekend shifts than on days with standard shifts. Older but not younger adolescents spent more time hanging out with friends on evening and weekend shift days, and their unsupervised peer time was less consistent across days when mothers worked more evening shifts. These effects adjusted for sociodemographic and day characteristics, including school day, number of children in the household, mothers’ marital status and work hours, and time with fathers. Our results illuminate the importance of the timing and day of mothers’ work for youths’ daily activities. Future interventions should consider how to increase mothers’ resources to deal with constraints on parenting due to their work during nonstandard hours, with attention to child gender and age.     

Career Centered High School Education and Post–High School Career Adaptation

This study examines the quality of the transition into employment roles among a socioeconomically diverse cohort of 1,143 high school seniors who were interviewed as seniors in 1998 and 2 years later. Focusing on both subjective and objective dimensions of work adaptation, analyses examine differences in these outcomes associated with taking a high school career-major versus a more traditional academic program. This type of major is intended to assist in the career development and economic adaptation of more disadvantaged young adults and follows from an ecological model emphasizing the importance of connections between educational and employment institutions in the socialization of young people. Results indicate small but significant effects of having the career-major for the perceptual variables. Group differences were not found for the variables assessing more objective qualities of their jobs. The discrepancy between subjective and objective outcomes may suggest a short-term psychological optimism in the absence of an objective situation that would justify this view. Discussion centers on the need for stronger institutional support for school-work connections.