Investigating driving instructors: The mediating roles of driving skills in the relationship between organizational safety strategies and driver behaviours

The aim of the present study is to investigate the mediating roles of driving skills in relationship between organizational safety strategies and driver behaviours among driving instructors. Driving skills consist of perceptual-motor skills and safety skills. Driver behaviours are investigated under four factors: violations, errors, lapses, and positive driver behaviours. Participants were 132 driving instructors (108 male and 24 female). In order to measure organizational safety strategies, Organizational Safety Strategies Scale (OSSS) was developed for driving schools. Results of the principal component analyses yielded one-factor solution for OSSS. In order to test the indirect effects of organizational safety strategies on driver behaviours through driving skills, multiple mediation analyses were conducted by entering age and annual mileage as the control variables. As organizational safety strategies were stronger, driving instructors had higher levels of perceptual-motor skills, which resulted in higher violations. On the other hand, as organizational safety strategies were stronger, driving instructors had higher levels of safety skills, which resulted in less violations and lapses. It can be inferred that; organizational stronger safety strategies might have negative influences on road safety through higher perceptual-motor skills; whereas there can be positive influences on road safety through higher safety skills. In addition, both skills are related to organizational safety strategies. Hence, driving schools should consider the asymmetric relationship between perceptual-motor skills and safety skills while improving their safety strategies to decrease violations and lapses. Organizations might also develop interventions to balance the stated skills to increase road safety.     

Older drivers’ self-assessed driving skills,driving-related stress and self-regulation in traffic

Previous research on older drivers has indicated connections between self-rated driving ability, confidence in their own driving, driving-related stress, and self-regulatory behaviour. However, more systematic associations between older drivers’ perceptions on their own driving and self-regulation or driver stress and self-regulation behaviour, and possible gender differences in these, have not been obtained in previous studies. The aim of the present study was to gain a better understanding of older drivers’ self-regulatory driving and the motivators behind this behaviour, by placing this behaviour in the modern traffic psychological framework of the driving task. 888 drivers aged 75 or older completed a structured phone interview about their perceived changes in driving skills, driving-related discomfort, and avoidance of driving situations. The results showed that when reporting change, the participants were more likely to report improvement of higher level skills and decline of the lowest level skills. Women were less likely to report improvement and more likely to report decline of skills. Driving situations related to inner states or adverse conditions were more often associated with discomfort and avoidance than situations related to infrastructure, and women were more likely to report discomfort and avoidance of driving situations. The results suggest that older drivers generally show good self-judgement of changes in their driving skills and acknowledge the different types of skills comprised in the driving task. The results also provide a better understanding of older drivers’ self-regulation of driving and gender differences in this, thus providing a better understanding in particular of women drivers’ self-regulation and increased risk of premature driving cessation. These findings may be valuable when encouraging older drivers, especially women, to prolong their driving.     

Safe driving and road-crossing tasks: A particular case of successful transfer of learning

The current study examines whether crucial safe driving skills are associated with safe road-crossing skills as pedestrians. The main research question was whether skills that are acquired from the point of view of a driver are associated with the skills of pedestrians in different platforms or settings. Furthermore, the study examines whether task performance on one platform (driving) primes an operator for task performance on another (road-crossing as a pedestrian) or vice versa. Sixty people took part in this study and completed a demographic questionnaire, a Driving Behavior Questionnaire, a Pedestrian Behavior Scale and two computerized tests – a Hazard Perception Test for Drivers and a Hazard Perception Test for Pedestrians.We found that the better the participants detect hazards on the road as drivers, the better they detect hazards as pedestrians as well, and that most of the participants’ self-reported values regarding their driving and their road-crossing as pedestrians are correlated. The study revealed an association between years of seniority in driving and the number of driving hours per week, and some behavioral variables as pedestrians – meaning that exposure to the road as a driver may be related to safer behavior as a pedestrian.     

The relationship between simulator sickness and driving performance in a high-fidelity simulator

Driving simulators are highly valuable tools for various applications such as research, training, and rehabilitation. However, they are also known to cause simulator sickness, a special form of traditional motion sickness. Common side effects of simulator sickness include nausea, headache, dizziness, eye-strain, and/or disorientation, all symptoms which may negatively impact driving performance. The goal of the present study was to investigate the relationship between simulator sickness and driving performance obtained in a high-fidelity driving simulator. Twenty-one healthy participants were engaged in a simulated driving task containing rural, city, and highway sections for approx. 25 min. Participants were asked to drive naturally while obeying traffic rules and completing common driving maneuvers (including reactions to sudden events). Driving performance was evaluated based on various driving measures, such as lane positioning, speed measures, following distance, or the number of steering reversals. Simulator sickness was measured before, during, and after the simulated drive using a combination of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire and the Fast Motion Sickness scale. Overall, correlations between the level of simulator sickness and driving performance measures were low to moderate (r’s from -0.37 to 0.40) and were not significant. Additionally, participants who reported higher levels of simulator sickness did not differ with regards to their driving performance from those who reported lower simulator sickness scores. Our results suggest that the presence of simulator sickness is not strongly related to performance in a driving simulator.     

A social psychological approach to driving violations in two Chinese cities

A questionnaire study conducted in two Chinese cities investigated the determinants of the respondents’ aberrant driving behaviours. The Chinese Driving Questionnaire (CDQ) was developed and a version of the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) containing an extended set of driving violations particularly relevant in China was also included. Factor analysis of the DBQ revealed four factors with Alpha values over .60, two of them violations and the other two lapses and errors. Factor analysis of the CDQ items also revealed four factors with Alpha values over .60, namely the sense of social hierarchy, potential road safety countermeasure, belief in interpersonal network, and challenging legitimate authority. The result of a correlation analysis of the DBQ and CDQ scales showed that while the two violation scales were significantly and positively correlated with the social hierarchy and interpersonal network scale, the two lapse and error scales basically were not. When the DBQ scales were regressed on demographic variables and CDQ scales, the results of the hierarchical regressions showed that the prediction of self-reported driving violations had been significantly improved by the addition of culture relevant factors measured in the CDQ, while there was no major change in the prediction of lapses and errors. Logistic regression analysis showed that aggressive violations made a significant contribution to traffic accident involvement, independent of the demographic variables. The present study also identified some potential road safety countermeasures, and suggested young female drivers, and drivers at their early thirties should be especially targeted in road safety campaign.     

Validation of the F-DBQ: A short (and accurate) risky driving behavior questionnaire for long-haul professional drivers

Although the Driving Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) remains the most known tool for assessing risky road behaviors among motor vehicle drivers, recent studies have raised several concerns on the specificity of both driving task conditions and behavioral repertory of certain segments of the driving population. Among them, long-haul (cargo) professional drivers constitute one of the “intensive driving” groups for which the existing adapted behavioral research tools are still very scarce.PurposeThe aim of the present study was to test and validate the F-DBQ (or “Freight Driving Behavior Questionnaire”), a short version of the DBQ adapted to the occupational driving conditions and typical road risk behaviors of freight drivers.MethodFor this cross-sectional study, a sample of n = 982 Spanish long-haul drivers with a mean age of 48.5 years was used, responding to a questionnaire composed of measures on road risk behaviors (DBQ), fatigue (Checklist Individual Strength – CIS and Need for Recovery Scale – NFR) and job stress (Effort–Reward Imbalance questionnaire – ERI).ResultsThrough competitive Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) with structural equation models, it was found that the F-DBQ has a clear dimensional structure, a fair goodness-of-fit, high factorial weights, internal consistency, convergent and discriminant validity and an improved fit to long haul drivers’ working conditions. Also, both (general and work-related) fatigue and job stress have shown to have a significant role in explaining risky road behaviors of long-haul drivers.ConclusionThe findings of this study support that an abbreviated version of the Driving Behavior Questionnaire (the F-DBQ) can be used to assess traffic violations and errors among long-haul drivers, in consideration of their specific task-related conditions (that qualitatively differ from other groups of drivers), with potential implications on the enforcement of occupational and road safety research.     

The effect of context and drivers’ age on highway traffic signs comprehension

Background: Comprehension of traffic signs is crucial to safety. Objectives: To test the effects of the presentation condition (with or without driving context) on symbolic based road signs comprehension and comprehension time for young and older drivers. Method: 50 young drivers and 50 older drivers were presented with images of 28 Israeli road signs, both without context (with a white background) and in context (with the driving surrounding). Data were collected on the accuracy of signs meaning and on the time it took the participants to provide the meaning. Results: Younger drivers performed significantly better than older drivers on both accuracy and response time (RT). Older drivers’ average RT was approximately twice as long as younger drivers’ RT. However, the presentation mode (with or without context) did not affect sign comprehension of either group, but the presence of the context did increase the time it took the drivers to comprehend the sign’s meaning. In addition, correct response time was similar to opposite to sign’s meaning response time. Implications: Older drivers, can benefit from retraining in sign comprehension of current signage. The training should involve signs in their natural road environment to reduce comprehension time while actually driving. Moreover, signs that were understood as having an opposite meaning should be redesigned or be accompanied by text.     

Avoidance and personal and occupational quality of life in French people with driving anxiety

Driving anxiety can have a significant impact on one’s quality of life, particularly for those who experience intense levels. However, to date there are limited data about the perceived impact of driving anxiety on occupational life, and driving anxiety remains under-researched in France. To address this gap, an online survey assessing self-reported driving anxiety, how it manifests and its links with some aspects of personal and occupational life was designed. The survey was administered in France to respondents who identified as experiencing driving anxiety. Responses were obtained from 304 people aged 18 years or older. In the sample, 32.2%, 44.7% and 23% respectively reported mild, moderate and extreme levels of driving anxiety. In the extremely anxious group, males were under-represented, whereas people aged 35–44 and unlicensed drivers were over-represented. People who were unemployed (excluding students and retired people), reported that their anxiety had been a barrier to getting a job and a high percentage of these respondents had also previously considered leaving a position because of their anxiety. Respondents also reported their anxiety had a negative impact on their perceived quality of life in general. People who categorised as extremely anxious reported a negative impact four times higher than those in the mildly anxious group.The results highlight for the first time the perceived impact of driving anxiety on daily and occupational life in a French population. Further, the results demonstrate the importance of distinguishing between moderately and extremely anxious drivers as the intensity level has differential impacts on personal and work life quality.     

Effects of manual versus voice-activated dialing during simulated driving

We measured driving performance (lane-keeping errors, driving times, and glances away from the road scene) in a video driving simulator for 24 volunteers who each drove alone on a 10.6-km multicurved course while simultaneously placing calls on a mobile phone subscribed to a voice-activated dialing system. Driving performance also was measured for the same distance while participants manually dialed phone numbers and while they drove without dialing. There were 22% fewer lane-keeping errors (p<.01) and 56% fewer glances away from the road scene (p<.01) when they used voice-activated dialing as compared to manual dialing. Significantly longer driving times in both of the dialing conditions as compared to the No Dialing condition are discussed in terms of the hypothesis that drivers decrease driving speed to compensate for the demands of the secondary phone tasks.     

Car following with an inertia-oriented driving technique: A driving simulator experiment

BackgroundFor many decades, car-following (CF) and congestion models have assumed a basic invariance: drivers’ default driving strategy is to keep the safety distance. The present study questions that Driving to keep Distance (DD) is a traffic invariance and, therefore, that the difference between the time required to accelerate versus decelerate must necessarily determine the observed patterns of traffic oscillations. Previous studies have shown that drivers can adopt alternative CF strategies like Driving to keep Inertia (DI) by following basic instructions. The present work aims to test the effectiveness of a DI course that integrates 4 tutorials and 4 practice sessions in a standard PC computer designed to learn more adaptive driving behaviors in dense traffic. Methods. Sixty-eight drivers were invited to follow a leading car that varied its speed on a driving simulator, then they took a DI course on a PC computer, and finally they followed a fluctuating leader again on the driving simulator. The study adopted a pretest-intervention-posttest design with a control group. The experimental group took the full DI course (tutorials and then simulator practice). The control group had access to the DI simulator but not to the tutorials. Results. All participating drivers adopted DD as the default CF mode on the pre-test, yielding very similar results. But after taking the full DI course, the experimental group showed significantly less accelerations, decelerations, and speed variability than the control group, and required greater CF distance, that was dynamically adjusted, spending less fuel in the post-test. A group of 8 virtual cars adopting DD required less space on the road to follow the drivers that took the DI course.     

Road safety education for older drivers: Evaluation of a classroom-based training initiative

Around the world, a growing proportion of drivers are aged 70 or over. Although accident rates for older drivers are lower than for young or novice drivers, increased frailty and slowed reactions mean that older drivers are at higher risk of death or serious injury when involved in a road collision. The objectives of this study were to: (a) identify driving knowledge and self-regulatory strategies among a group of older drivers with a view to planning future on-road training; (b) measure driver self-assessments of ability and confidence before and after classroom training delivered by driving instructors; (c) evaluate the utility and acceptability of training courses for older drivers using questionnaires and focus groups; d) examine the characteristics of course participants.142 drivers aged ≥75 completed a two-hour classroom-based driving course and took part in the evaluation: 94 aged 75–79, 48 aged ≥80, 68% male. Main reasons for taking part were to update knowledge, improve driving and check they were safe to drive. Results showed that females were more likely than males to avoid driving in difficult conditions (at night, in bad weather, unfamiliar roads). More drivers aged 75–79 said they did not restrict their driving (52, 57%) compared to drivers aged ≥80 (19, 43%). Pre-course, males rated their driving confidence and ability significantly higher than females. Post-course, self-ratings of confidence and ability were unchanged for 76 (60%) drivers. However, two-thirds reported improved knowledge and 80% said they would change their driving behaviour as a result of the course. Focus group results suggest that competent drivers are more likely to attend educational courses than unsafe drivers. This study provides preliminary evidence that classroom-based training can initiate behaviour change among older drivers. Future research will examine the effectiveness of on-road training in this age group.     

The Driving Appraisal Inventory: Psychometric Characteristics and Construct Validity1

Four studies examined the dimensionality, reliability and construct validity of the Driving Appraisal Inventory (DAI), a self-report measure of driving habits and skills. In Study 1, analysis of 127 items led to the formation of four unidimensional, internally reliable scales: Carelessness, Drunken Driving, Vehicle Safety, and Self-Evaluation. In Study 2, all were found to have acceptable test-retest reliability. In Study 3, convergent validity support was obtained for the Carelessness and Vehicle Safety scales. In Study 4, concurrent criterion-related validity support was obtained for the Carelessness and Drunken Driving scales. Scores on the Self-Evaluation scale appear to be more a function of self-confidence and/or ego-involvement in driving skills and less a function of actual driving skills. Men score higher than women do on the Carelessness, Drunken Driving, and Self-Evaluation scales, and in Study 4, criterion-related validity of the Self-Evaluation scale was stronger among women than among men.     

Novel use of a virtual driving assessment to classify driver skill at the time of licensure

Motor vehicle crash rates are highest immediately after licensure, and driver error is one of the leading causes. Yet, few studies have quantified driving skills at the time of licensure, making it difficult to identify at-risk drivers before independent driving. Using data from a virtual driving assessment implemented into the licensing workflow in Ohio, this study presents the first population-level study classifying degree of skill at the time of licensure and validating these against a measure of on-road performance: license exam outcomes. Principal component and cluster analysis of 33,249 virtual driving assessments identified 20 Skill Clusters that were then grouped into 4 major summary “Driving Classes”; i) No Issues (i.e. careful and skilled drivers); ii) Minor Issues (i.e. an average new driver with minor vehicle control skill deficits); iii) Major Issues (i.e. drivers with more control issues and who take more risks); and iv) Major Issues with Aggression (i.e. drivers with even more control issues and more reckless and risk-taking behavior). Category labels were determined based on patterns of VDA skill deficits alone (i.e. agnostic of the license examination outcome). These Skill Clusters and Driving Classes had different distributions by sex and age, reflecting age-related licensing policies (i.e. those under 18 and subject to GDL and driver education and training), and were differentially associated with subsequent performance on the on-road licensing examination (showing criterion validity). The No Issues and Minor Issues classes had lower than average odds of failing, and the other two more problematic Driving Classes had higher odds of failing. Thus, this study showed that license applicants can be classified based on their driving skills at the time of licensure. Future studies will validate these Skill Cluster classes in relation to their prediction of post-licensure crash outcomes.     

Other road users’ adaptations to increase safety in response to older drivers’ behaviour

Changes in physical and cognitive abilities not only challenge the driving ability of older adults, in some situations age-related changes in driving behaviour require other road users to adapt their behaviour to maintain a safe traffic situation. In this study, we aimed to map age-related differences in driving behaviour and assess the impact on other road users. A group younger and a group older adults drove four different routes containing challenging situations (e.g., merging into motorway traffic) in a driving simulator while measures of driving behaviour were collected. Other road users’ deceleration responses to the driver’s behaviour were also collected as a measure of behavioural adaptation. Our results showed similar driving performance between young and older drivers when task complexity was low, but reduced performance in older drivers when tasks requirements increased. Lower driving speed and longer waiting times that were observed in older drivers can be interpreted as compensatory behaviour aimed at creating more time to lower task requirements. Crucially, in a non-time critical situation this compensatory behaviour was found to be successful, however in a time-critical situation (merging onto a motorway) this strategy had negative side effects because other road users had to decelerate in order to keep a safe distance. Our results show the importance of anticipation and adaptation by other road users for the success of older driver’s strategies and traffic safety.     

Personality as a predictor of driving performance: An exploratory study

Objective

To examine the role of psychological type in older driver performance.

Methods

A convenience sample of 50 older adults was prospectively enrolled in the study. Each completed a demographic profile, the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI®) Step III™ instrument, a self-reported Safe Driving Behaviors Measure (SDBM), clinical tests and a standardized on-road driving evaluation yielding a fail/pass determination and Sum of Maneuvers Score (SMS).

Results

Participants (M age = 72.96, SD = 4.78) who had Extraversion and Judging preferences were better drivers than those with Introversion or Perceiving preferences. Those with Sensing vs. Intuition preferences rated themselves better on the SDBM (S = 317.62, N = 305.33; t(48) = 2.19, p = .03). Those with Introvert preferences failed the on-road course with sensitivity = .714, specificity = .767, area under the curve = .76, p = .03.

Conclusion

Our findings provide the basis for further research investigating personality and driving. Specifically, if the main findings are consistent in a representative sample of older drivers, personality testing may be added to a driving assessment battery. Future research must build on these findings to more clearly identify the risk associated with psychological type and examine how personality profiles can be used to keep older drivers on the road longer and more safely.     

Understanding and modelling risky driving behaviour on high-speed corridors

This study explores the relationships among various factors influencing risky driving behaviours, particularly on high-speed corridors (expressways). A total of 546 samples are collected from licenced drivers through an online survey. Exploratory factor analysis confirms the four-factor solution and the same is verified using confirmatory factor analysis. These factors are individual aberrant driving behaviour (violations and errors), risky driving behaviour performed by surrounding vehicles and dangerous manoeuvres due to prevailing road environment. Structural equation modelling is used to establish the relationships amongst the aforementioned factors. The results of the study describe that observed risky driving behaviour on expressways is mostly affected by drivers’ individual aberrant driving (γ = 0.62) followed by risky driving behaviour performed by surrounding vehicles (γ = 0.39) and least affected by the road environment (γ = 0.36). The individual driving behaviour is mostly affected by violations (γ = 0.47) followed by errors (γ = 0.38). Furthermore, differences in Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) scales are analysed with respect to the demographic variables. Results suggest that male and young drivers report more violations than female and older drivers, respectively, however, female drivers are more error prone than male drivers. The findings of the study can be useful to identify the potential road safety countermeasures to improve the driving style as well as the driving environment.     

Fitness to drive following cerebral pathology: The Rookwood Driving Battery as a tool for predicting on‐road driving performance

The use of neuropsychological testing to determine fitness to drive in people with neuropathology is likely to be an increasingly attractive alternative to on‐road testing for many candidates for assessment. The Rookwood Driving Battery has been shown to have good predictive value for determining some who are likely to fail an on‐road test in early studies. This study replicated earlier research by examining the predictive value and theoretical validity of the battery on a larger sample of 391 participants, as well as extending earlier analysis by examining the effect of older age (over 70 years) and the interaction between age and pathology on battery and on‐road performance. The battery demonstrated good positive and negative predictive values for predicting on‐road performance. There were significant effects of older age on both the Rookwood Battery performance and the on‐road test, with older adults performing significantly poorer on both. There was no interaction between age and pathology on the Rookwood Battery but on‐road age interacted with some pathologies to produce significantly poorer performances. Furthermore, correlation and regression analysis indicate that the battery is a powerful instrument that encompasses tests of core neuropsychological functions needed for driving.     

Contextual Design for driving: Developing a trip-planning tool for older adults

Independent living depends on mobility, and mobility depends on driving, particularly for people 65 years and older. The longer older adults can safely drive, the longer they can independently run errands, shop, exercise, and maintain social networks. Age-related decline of perceptual, motor, and cognitive abilities can undermine the mobility and driving safety of older drivers. Data from driving simulators, on-road tests, surveys, and crash reports describe the driving safety and mobility challenges of older adults, but these methods offer a limited view of these challenges and fail to indicate design solutions. Contextual Design—a combination of Contextual Inquiry interviews, model building, and affinity diagrams—offers a complementary approach to uncover challenges that older adult drivers’ experience. For two weeks, 39 drivers age 65 and above, had their vehicles instrumented to collect driving and video data. Applying Contextual Design to these data showed that older drivers in urban and rural settings faced different mobility challenges and adopted various strategies to mitigate risk: older drivers often involved their spouse or passenger in the driving task, avoided certain driving maneuvers such as left turns, avoided unfamiliar or poorly lit roads at night, and planned trips to avoid risky driving situations. Ridesharing and trip planning emerged as important strategies to improve the safety and mobility of older drivers. Ridesharing could serve as a potential solution to prolong mobility; however, factors such as wait time, scheduling conflicts, costs, and trust were concerns for older drivers. A paper prototype was developed to validate the driving challenges faced by older drivers, and guide the development of a customized web-based trip-planning tool. The trip-planning tool could help older drivers make safer route choices by offering routes with fewer driving challenges, thereby enhancing their driving safety, mobility, and independence.     

The different effects of personality on prosocial and aggressive driving behaviour in a Chinese sample

Dangerous driving behaviours, as a direct cause of accidents and death, are the focus of considerable research attention. However, unlike unsafe driving behaviours, few studies have explored safe driving behaviours and their effects on road traffic. This study aims to verify the Chinese version of the Prosocial and Aggressive Driving Inventory (PADI) and then investigate the relationship between personality and aggressive/prosocial driving behaviours. A total of 303 licensed drivers were recruited, and they voluntarily and anonymously completed the PADI, the Driving Behaviours Questionnaire (DBQ), and personality scales (anger, sensation-seeking and altruism). The results of this research confirmed the reliability and validity of the Chinese PADI. Most importantly, it was found that different relationships between different personalities and aggressive/prosocial driving behaviours. Specifically, individuals with high altruism exhibited more prosocial driving behaviours, while individuals with high sensation seeking presented more aggressive driving behaviours. The importance of these findings lies in two main potential implications: developing an effective measurement of prosocial driving behaviours in China and providing favourable evidence to guide drivers toward more prosocial driving behaviours.     

Risky driving behavior: a consequence of motion adaptation for visually guided motor action

The authors examined the effect of adaptation to expansion on overtaking maneuvers in a driving simulator. Following driving on a straight empty road for 5 min, drivers initiated overtaking substantially later (220-510 ms) than comparable maneuvers made following viewing a static scene or following 5 min of curve driving. Following adaptation to contraction (produced by driving backward), observers initiated overtaking significantly sooner. The removal of the road texture significantly reduced the size of the adaptation effect. The authors propose that these changes in overtaking behavior are due to misestimation of the time headway produced by local adaptation of looming detectors that signal motion-in-depth for objects near the focus of expansion. This adaptation effect may increase the risk of rear-end collisions during highway driving.