Seat belt use and stress in adolescents

This study explored the association of adolescent seat belt use with psychosocial risk factors in an urban minority population after the enactment of a mandatory seat belt law. Data on seat belt use, family support, feelings of being down, suicidal ideation, substance abuse, sexual activity, school troubles, and problems with the law were obtained from 541 self-report intake forms administered to an adolescent medicine clinic population from 1986 to 1987. Respondents were almost exclusively black and Hispanic; 315 (59%) were females and 222 (41%) males, with a mean age of 15.4. Seat belt use was reported by 249 (46%) and no or intermittent use by 292 (54%). Chi-square and Wilcoxon rank sums tests were used to examine associations between seat belt use and risk factors. Results showed that the group comprised of those reporting no and intermittent seat belt use was significantly more likely to feel down, have decreased home support, have problems with school and the law, have been on probation, and feel that life in general was not going very well. No association was found between seat belt use and cigarette, drug, or alcohol use or sexual activity without contraceptives. Taking into account the lack of observed behavioral information to validate such self-report questionnaires, these data nevertheless point to the nonuse or intermittent use of seat belts as a possible manifestation of a lack of self-care due to feeling down and/or preoccupation with family, school, or societal problems.     

Relationship of seat belt use to health and driver behaviors

Seat belts are effective safety devices for protecting car occupants from injuries and fatalities in road vehicle accidents. Seat belt use has been reported to be related to some health and driving-related behaviors. The aim of the present study was to investigate to what degree seat belt use can be seen as health behavior or driver behavior. Participants were 252 licensed Turkish drivers (180 males, 72 females) with the mean age of 30.8 (SD = 12.15). A questionnaire including questions related to health-related behaviors, driver behaviors and seat belt use was used. Results of factor analysis showed that seat belt use in front seat grouped with driver behaviors (e.g., driving errors and violations) but not with health-related behaviors (e.g., healthy diet and sports participation). Regression analyses showed that seat belt use in back seat; and, regular walking and adequate sleep were positively related to seat belt use in front seat, whereas being male, driving errors and smoking frequency were negatively related to seat belt use in front seat. The present findings suggest that seat belt use can be considered in the context of driver behaviors such as driving errors and violations.     

Rewarding safety belt usage at an industrial setting: Tests of treatment generality and response maintenance

An incentive program to motivate seat belt use was implemented at a large munitions plant. Seat belt usage was assessed daily at an entrance/exit gate of the industrial complex when employees arrived for work in the morning and departed in the afternoon. During treatment incentive fliers, which prompted seat belt usage and gave belt wearers opportunities to win prizes, were distributed only in the afternoon. Seat belt wearing increased from baseline means of 20.4% and 17.3% during the morning and afternoon, respectively, to averages of 55.5% during afternoon departures and 31.1% during morning arrivals. During follow-up, mean belt use dropped almost to baseline levels. Categorizing vehicles according to driver sex and license plate number enabled a study of belt wearing practices of individuals, and revealed that the incentive program influenced some drivers to wear their seat belts during morning arrival when incentives were not distributed (i.e., treatment generalization) and during a follow-up period after the incentives were withdrawn (i.e., response maintenance).     

Active prompting to decrease cell phone use and increase seat belt use while driving

Automobile crashes are the leading cause of death for those aged 3 to 33, with 43,005 (118 per day) Americans killed in 2002 alone. Seat belt use reduces the risk of serious injury in an accident, and refraining from using a cell phone while driving reduces the risk of an accident. Cell phone use while driving increases accident rates, and leads to 2,600 U.S. fatalities each year. An active prompting procedure was employed to increase seat belt use and decrease cell phone use among drivers exiting a university parking lot. A multiple baseline with reversal design was used to evaluate the presentation of two signs: "Please Hang Up, I Care" and "Please Buckle Up, I Care." The proportion of drivers who complied with the seat belt prompt was high and in line with previous research. The proportion of drivers who hung up their cell phones in response to the prompt was about equal to that of the seat belt prompt. A procedure that reduces cell phone use among automobile drivers is a significant contribution to the behavioral safety literature.     

Increasing seat belt use in service vehicle drivers with a gearshift delay

This study evaluated a device that prevents drivers from shifting vehicles into gear for up to 8 s unless seat belts are buckled. Participants were 101 commercial drivers who operated vans, pickups, or other light trucks from the U.S. and Canada. The driver could escape or avoid the delay by fastening his or her seat belt before shifting out of park. Unbelted participants experienced either a constant delay (8 s) or a variable delay (M = 8 s). A 16‐s delay was introduced for those U.S. drivers who did not show significant improvement. Seat belt use increased from 48% to 67% (a 40% increase) for U.S. drivers and from 54% to 74% (a 37% increase) for Canadian drivers. The fixed delay was more effective for U.S. drivers than the variable delay, but there was no difference between these two delay schedules for Canadian drivers. After the driver fastened his or her seat belt, it tended to remain fastened for the duration of the trip.     

Driving in the fasting month of Ramadan: An observational study on speeding,horn honking,and using seat belts

The aim of this study was to examine how Ramadan, i.e., fasting month for believers of Islam, was associated to observable driving behaviours (i.e., speeding, horn honking, and using seat belts) as compared to non-Ramadan. Observations on speeding, horn honking, and using seat belts were held during and after Ramadan in different times of the day in the same region of the city of Ankara. Speeds of 1885 vehicles were measured by hand held radar on a two-way eight-lane road with a 50 km/h speed limit. Horn honking was recorded at a signalised intersection with a hidden camera when the light turned into green in terms of 510 traffic light cycles. Seat belt wearing of 2106 drivers was observed at the same intersection. Findings indicated that (a) mean speed was lower, (b) honked horns were higher, and (c) seat belt use was lower in Ramadan as compared to non-Ramadan, though each negative driving behaviour was prevalent in both periods. Thus this study showed that the Ramadan period had a limited role on speeding, horn honking, and using seat belts.     

INCREASING SEAT BELT USE ON A COLLEGE CAMPUS: AN EVALUATION OF TWO PROMPTING PROCEDURES

Seat belt use is an important factor in the prevention of automobile accidents involving injuries and fatalities. The current study used a multielement design to compare the “Click It or Ticket” and “Please Buckle Up—I Care” procedures. Results indicate that the Click It or Ticket prompt resulted in a 20‐percentage‐point increase in seat belt use, and Please Buckle Up—I Care resulted in a 14‐percentage‐point increase.     

A home-based approach to understanding the effect of spatial autocorrelation on seat belt non-use

Roadside observations indicate that seat belt use rates are often spatially correlated with nearby areas. However, very few studies have examined the effects of spatial autocorrelation on seat belt use. This study used exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) to explore spatial autocorrelation in Tennessee, which has a lower seat belt use than the United States national average. We geocoded home-addresses of vehicle occupants involved in traffic crashes between 2014 and 16 (n = 1,251,901) and projected them to the census tract corresponding to their home address. This projection reveals information about the spatial distribution of seat belt non-use and socioeconomics of the areas surrounding the crash victim's home. The presence of highly spatially correlated observations (i.e., a significant positive Moran’s I) suggests that seat belt non-use is not produced solely by the internal structural factors represented in the non-spatial models. ESDA reveals a distinctive regional imprint for spatial autocorrelation, in which Southern-metropolitan areas’ (Southern-MPOs) in Tennessee census tracts have higher than average seat belt non-use compared to Non-Southern-MPOs (16% vs. 9%). The spatial error model was suitable for Non-Southern-MPOs, whereas the spatial lag model was more suitable for Southern MPOs. Comparison of the estimated models indicates that in the Non-Southern MPOs, percentage of the White population, percentage of the population with Bachelor's degree, median household income, vehicle ownership, and population density are significant predictors of seat belt non-use. On the other hand, median household income, vehicle ownership, and percentage of population aged between 16 and 42 years old predict seat belt non-use in Southern MPOs. The study results could be used to identify seat belt non-use clusters at the state level and identify seat belt non-use hot zones. Furthermore, this analysis indicates that the relationship between demographic variables and seat belt non-use varies across regimes. Failing to consider the spatial regimes in the analysis would lead to falsely prioritizing groups prone to seat belt non-use.     

The Importance of Risk in Determining the Extent to Which Attitudes Affect Intentions to Wear Seat Belts1

Stasson and Fishbein (1990) reported findings indicating that college students' intentions to wear seat belts in low-risk situations were attitudinally controlled, while their intentions to wear seat belts in high-risk situations were normatively controlled. If these findings are valid, manipulations of attitude (toward wearing a seat belt) should have a greater impact on intentions to wear a seat belt in a safe situation than on intentions to wear a seat belt in a risky situation. Three experiments provided strong support for this hypothesis. The implications of these findings for defining behavior and for designing interventions to increase seat-belt use are discussed.     

Incentives and Seat Belts: Changing a Resistant Behavior Through Extrinsic Motivation

Because previously-attempted methods of increasing automobile seat belt usage have proven to be either ineffective or unworkable, a series of field experiments was carried out to test a technique of behavior influence utilizing a modest, positive incentive. In three separate studies, seat belt use of 4,745 drivers was observed as they drove out of a parking lot, after receiving one of several safety reminder leaflets. Some versions of the leaflet offered a gift certificate to a certain proportion of drivers who wore seat belts; other versions offered no incentive. The results showed that an incentive, regardless of the probability of payoff, raised belt use from about 15% to nearly 40%. Implications for future research and applications are discussed.     

Response of part-time belt users to enhanced seat belt reminder systems of different duty cycles and duration

Enhanced seat belt reminders are an effective means of increasing seat belt use. It is important to optimize the design of these systems so that they increase belt use and are acceptable to vehicle occupants. This study examined the effects of duty cycle and duration on seat belt reminder effectiveness and annoyance. It also evaluated the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) duration requirement. Eighty part-time belt users experienced one of four seat belt reminders in a driving simulator and rated the likelihood that they would buckle up and how annoyed they were every 45 s. Overall, participants that experienced an enhanced reminder said they would be more likely to buckle up than participants that experienced a basic reminder which complied with but did not exceed the US federal requirements. The reported likelihood of buckling up did not change significantly as reminder duration increased. Increasing the duty cycle of the chime and flashing icon in a reminder cycle did not influence these ratings either, but it did make the system more annoying. Reducing the duty cycle of enhanced reminders would be one method of increasing user acceptance while ensuring the reminder system still motivates belt use. Lastly, the variation in duration and duty cycle permitted under Euro NCAP requirements for seat belt reminders did not affect the reported likelihood of belt use for participants in the three enhanced reminder conditions.     

The effects of nighttime seat belt enforcement on seat belt use by tavern patrons: a preliminary analysis.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of police enforcement and the use of signs and posters in promoting seat belt use by nighttime tavern patrons. Ten taverns in two cities served as sites. Data were collected on the nighttime seat belt use of tavern patrons and daytime citywide seat belt use. Results indicated that the intervention increased nighttime seat belt use by tavern patrons. Daytime seat belt use increased in one city and remained at a high level in the other following the intervention. Because previous research has shown that tavern patrons are overrepresented in the impaired driving population, and that seat belt use decreases the likelihood of serious injury or death, results of this study suggest that enforcement of seat belt use could reduce casualties resulting from impaired driving.     

Exploring the characteristics of potential and current users of mobility scooters,among older people in Israel

Recognizing the decline in the ability of older people to serve as vehicle drivers and their physical limitations for long walks, mobility scooters are considered as an alternative mobility means for older people. An increasing popularity of scooters is recently being observed in Israel, raising safety concerns. This study explored the characteristics of potential users of mobility scooters among older people in Israel and the behaviours of their current users, by means of an opinion survey and field observations in urban areas. The opinion survey applied structured interviews, with 110 persons aged 65+. The survey's results showed that most people agreed that scooters may improve their mobility and quality of life. However, they expressed a relatively low willingness to use scooters, mostly, due to the preference for private cars but also the lack of appropriate infrastructure for safe scooter travel in the city. An increasing potential for scooters' use was associated with ages 70–84, people who are aware of their health problems and less involved in physical activities but still maintain an active lifestyle, living independently and appreciating scooter benefits. The observations included 55 video-records with older scooter riders. They showed that regardless the types of urban road or junction, the majority of scooter riders behaved like a vehicle, i.e. travelled on the roadway. Scooters' moving on a sidewalk did not create conflicts with pedestrians, while scooters travelling on the roads sometimes disturbed vehicle flows and created dangerous situations. To ensure safety of the scooter users, their travels on the sidewalks should be stimulated and, thus, appropriate adjustments of urban infrastructure are required.     

A preliminary study of a traumatic injury prevention program

Abstract

This study examined the long-term impact of a five component spinal cord injury prevention program presented to adolescents. A sample of 445 teenagers who attended a junior high school in which an educational intervention was presented three years earlier and a control group of 379 students who had not been exposed to the intervention completed a questionnaire assessing their safety knowledge, attitudes, and self-reported behaviors. Total scores on the questionnaire between treatment and control groups differed significantly. Students in the treatment group reported significantly more frequent seat belt use, stronger belief that seat belts were important to their safety, lower likelihood of riding with friends who had been drinking, higher rates of friends' use of seat belts, greater awareness of the age group most likely to be injured, and increased knowledge that they could prevent spinal cord injury.     

Self-reported Attitude Towards Speeding and Its Possible Consequences in Five Different Road Contexts

Driving above the permitted speed limit is a common violation on the roads of Great Britain. Moreover, speeding is associated with negative consequences in the form of damage, injury and fatal road traffic accidents. The aim of this study was to assess, by means of self-report, the prevalence of this social problem across five different contexts: a residential road, a busy shopping street, a dual carriageway, a winding country road, and a motorway. The extent to which speeding was perceived to be associated with negative consequences was also assessed. Results suggest that most drivers make judgements about the type of road on which they are driving and the degree of speeding that is acceptable, and that their intentions to speed vary accordingly. Some drivers reported a consistent intention to speed, however, and these people were characterized by greater general deviance on the road (e.g. high violation score), rather than by a stronger tendency to underestimate the negative consequences. In general, however, younger people and those with less regard for negative consequences reported stronger intentions to speed. These results are discussed with reference to strategies for addressing the problem of speeding. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A behavioral analysis of incentive prompts for motivating seat belt use

The seat belt usage of drivers was observed at the entrance to two campus parking lots during morning arrival times. After 11 days of baseline, fliers which prompted seat belt wearing were handed to drivers of incoming vehicles. At one parking lot all fliers offered a chance to win a prize (noncontingent rewards); while at the second lot only those fliers given to seat belt wearers included a chance to win a prize (contingent rewards). After 24 consecutive observation days, these interventions were removed for 14 days of withdrawal. The recording of vehicle license plates enabled an analysis of belt usage per individual over repeated exposures to the experimental conditions. At the lot with the contingent reward intervention, mean belt usage was 26.3% during baseline, 45.7% during treatment, and 37.9% during withdrawal. At the noncontingent reward lot, the mean percentage of belt wearing was 22.2% during baseline, 24.1% during treatment, and 21.8% during withdrawal. The analysis of repeated exposures per individual verified that only contingent rewards influenced substantial increases in belt wearing, and showed that most of the influence occurred after the initial incentive prompt.     

Increasing safety-belt use in Spanish drivers: a field test of personal prompts

A variation of the ABAB experimental design was used to assess the impact of a verbal prompt on safety-belt use for those traveling by urban roads and highways in Spain. The personal prompt resulted in an increase (29.6%) in safety-belt use among drivers traveling on urban roads. This research shows that the impact of personal prompts can be generalized to cultures outside the United States.     

Long-term benefits of prompts to use safety belts among drivers exiting senior communities

Senior drivers are vulnerable to automobile crashes and subsequent injury and death. Safety belts reduce health risks associated with auto crashes. Therefore, it is important to encourage senior drivers to wear safety belts while driving. Using a repeated baseline design (AAB), we previously reported that motivating signs boosted safety belt usage by drivers exiting senior communities from baseline (72% and 68% usage), to postinstallation of signs (94%), to 6 months follow-up (80%). The current study was a 4-year follow-up in which six senior communities, with seat belt signs, were compared to six matched control senior communities with no signs. Safety belt usage was stable, across 4 years, at approximately 80% for both male and female drivers and front seat passengers for the six communities with signs, and was approximately 55% for control sites. These finding suggest that the simple and low-cost intervention of erecting signs to prompt safety belt use has persistent benefits that affect driver and passenger behavior alike.     

An experimental approach towards the evaluation of a seat belt campaign with an inside view on the psychology behind seat belt use

A Belgian national safety belt campaign was evaluated by means of a questionnaire survey in an adolescent sample. The evaluation was done through a three group after-only design with the use of one control group and two experimental groups. The first experimental group, the attentive group, was exposed to the campaign material in a very direct, attentive way, whereas the second experimental group, the pre-attentive group, was exposed rather inattentively. The framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) was applied and extended with a habit and a past behaviour variable in order to verify whether seat belt usage is to be understood as an automaticity mechanism (i.e., habitual or repeated past behaviour) or as planned behaviour. In terms of campaign effect, the comparison of the pre-attentive group and the control group revealed no significant differences. However, the attentive group and the control group differed significantly regarding two basic dimensions of perceived behavioural control (i.e., confidence and motivation), habit, past behaviour, behavioural intention and behaviour. In terms of explaining seat belt usage, linear regression models were fitted and gave most support for the repeated past behaviour approach. According to the latter, using seat belts is recycling an originally reasoned behaviour, yet without systematically going through the whole underlying reasoning every time a situation in which the decision to wear a seat belt (or not) presents itself. The practical implications of these findings are discussed more in detail.     

Similarities between self-reported road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their perceptions concerning road safety behavior of their parents

The study investigated 401 19-year-olds, who were licensed car drivers in Lithuania. The focus of the survey was on the self-reported road safety behaviors of teenage drivers and their perceptions of their parents’ road safety behaviors, in order to assess behavioral similarities between teenagers and their parents. The survey also investigated whether parents and teenagers discuss issues of driving safely, and whether there is an association between these conversations and driving restrictions.According to teenagers’ reporting, road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their parents often is similar: most of them break the speed limit, drive when feeling fatigued, use a cell phone when driving, and do not fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The study indicated that there is a positive moderate correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and their parents, as reported by the teenagers. A majority of teenagers report that they discuss road safety factors, driving safely and driving behavior with their parents. Based on teenager reports, the parents, who discuss road safety issues with their children, are more likely to apply restrictions on teenagers’ driving.