Warnings given to observers can eliminate order effects

ObjectivesThe aim of the study was to examine the impact of warnings on order effects in attributions of ability.MethodQualified soccer coaches (N = 146) rated the ability of two soccer players (a control and target player) each shown, on video, performing a passing task eight times. For the control player, all participants saw the same footage in the same order. For the target player, participants viewed the same footage with half viewing a declining (successful to unsuccessful) performance pattern and half viewing an ascending pattern. Additionally, coaches either received no warning of the danger of order effects, a warning prior to viewing any footage, a warning prior to viewing the target player or a warning prior to rating the target player.ResultsResults indicated that primacy effects were observed in the no warning condition and the warning prior to rating the target. However, when warnings were given prior to observing the target player no order effects were observed.ConclusionThe results indicate that order effects can be eliminated by warning observers of the phenomenon.     

Is Viewing Ostracism on Television Distressing?

ABSTRACT

Being ostracized can be a painful and distressing experience and can lead to subsequent aggression by the victim. However, it is unknown whether watching someone else be ostracized either in real life or on television is similarly distressing. The purpose of the current study was to examine what type of distress (if any) is induced after viewing ostracism on television. The study consisted of 50 participants, half who viewed a movie clip containing ostracism and half who viewed a control clip. Physiological and self-report data revealed that viewing ostracism was distressing to participants. In particular, participants who viewed the ostracism clip reported a lower sense of belonging, self esteem, and mood, and a greater increase in heart rate and skin conductivity than those who viewed the control clip.     

Using perceptual home-training to improve anticipation skills of soccer goalkeepers

ObjectiveThis study aims to test the effectiveness of a perceptual training concerning the anticipatory skills of soccer goalkeepers, by assessing their performances while engaged in predicting the direction of penalty kicks.DesignForty-two skilled goalkeepers were randomly assigned to three training groups: Experimental, placebo, and control. All the groups were tested at the beginning of the experiment and re-tested after a period of eight weeks.MethodThe pre-test consisted of the presentation of temporally occluded videos of penalties recorded from the goalkeeper's perspective, and participants had to predict the direction of the ball. The experimental group practiced with an interactive home-training, based on video analogous to those of the test, with the addition of both positive and negative feedback. The placebo group viewed television footage of penalty kick shoot-outs. Participants of both groups were free to schedule their own training/placebo sessions. Finally, the control group did not receive any treatment.ResultsThe results demonstrated the effectiveness of the home-training protocol, evidencing significant accuracy improvements between pre-test and post-test only for the experimental group.ConclusionsThe outcomes indicate that skilled athletes can benefit from perceptual training, which was not investigated before among soccer goalkeepers. Indeed, all the previous training studies concerning soccer penalty predictions were run on participants with either recreational or no goalkeeping experience at all. Moreover, the present training protocol is innovative because learners can schedule training sessions on their own. Finally, its usability suggests numerous potential applications.     

Capturing and testing perceptual-cognitive expertise: A comparison of stationary and movement response methods

Numerous methods have been used to study expertise and performance. In the present article, we compare the cognitive thought processes of skilled soccer players when responding to film-based simulations of defensive situations involving two different experimental conditions. Participants either remained stationary in a seated position (n = 10) or were allowed to move (n = 10) in response to life-size film sequences of 11 versus 11 open-play soccer situations viewed from a player’s perspective. Response accuracy and retrospective verbal reports of thinking were collected across the two task conditions. In the movement-based response group, participants generated a greater number of verbal report statements, including a higher proportion of evaluation, prediction, and action planning statements, than did participants in the stationary group. Findings suggest that the processing strategies employed during performance differ depending on the nature of the response required of participants. Implications for behavioral methods and experimental design are discussed.     

Control over the processing of the opponent’s gaze direction in basketball experts

Basketball players’ responses to an opposing players’ pass direction are typically delayed when the opposing player gazes in another than the pass direction. Here, we studied the role of basketball expertise on this, the so-called head-fake effect, in three groups of participants (basketball experts, soccer players, and non-athletes). The specific focus was on the dependency of the head-fake effect on previous fake experience as an index of control over the processing of task-irrelevant gaze information. Whereas (overall) the head-fake effect was of similar size in all expertise groups, preceding fake experience removed the head-fake effect in basketball players, but not in non-experts. Accordingly, basketball expertise allows for higher levels of control over the processing of task-irrelevant gaze information.     

Is viewing ostracism on television distressing?

Being ostracized can be a painful and distressing experience and can lead to subsequent aggression by the victim. However, it is unknown whether watching someone else be ostracized either in real life or on television is similarly distressing. The purpose of the current study was to examine what type of distress (if any) is induced after viewing ostracism on television. The study consisted of 50 participants, half who viewed a movie clip containing ostracism and half who viewed a control clip. Physiological and self-report data revealed that viewing ostracism was distressing to participants. In particular, participants who viewed the ostracism clip reported a lower sense of belonging, self esteem, and mood, and a greater increase in heart rate and skin conductivity than those who viewed the control clip.     

Essential kinematic information,athletic experience,and affordance perception for others

The present study investigated the role of different types of movement in affordance perception, as well as the influence of sports experience. Perception of another actor’s maximum vertical jumping height and horizontal long-jumping distance was evaluated for basketball players, soccer players, and nonplayer controls after viewing point-light representations of the actors’ movements. Perceptual reports were more accurate after jumping-related movements (walking and squatting) were viewed than after nonrelated movements (standing and twisting). Vertical jump reports were more accurate than horizontal jump reports. Basketball and soccer players demonstrated higher accuracy than did controls. This research establishes that point-light displays contain essential kinematic information sufficient to support accurate affordance perception, and athletes appear better attuned to kinematic information specifying affordances for others as a result of their sports experience.     

The right man in the right place? Substitutions and goal-scoring in soccer

ObjectivesWe investigate how the goal-scoring probability in international club soccer evolves after player substitutions.DesignTo this end, we analyse rich data concerning 2,025 recent soccer games played in the two most prestigious club soccer competitions, i.e. the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League.MethodAs first in the literature, we control for within-game dynamics by applying a minute-by-minute bivariate probit approach.Results/ConclusionsWe find that teams experience increased goal-scoring probabilities after their first and second substitution and a decreased probability of scoring after the three substitutions made by their opponent. This association is less distinct during the first 3 mins after the substitution, which is consistent with difficulties to adapt to (i) the game intensity by the substitute player or (ii) tactical changes by the entire team. Furthermore, we find that the change in the goal-scoring probability is substantially bigger if the team is losing at the moment of the substitution.     

Earlier detection facilitates skilled responses to deceptive actions

High-skilled and recreational rugby players were placed in a semi-immersive CAREN Lab environment to examine susceptibility to, and detection of, deception. To achieve this, a broad window of seven occlusion times was used in which participants responded to life-size video clips of an opposing player ‘cutting’ left or right, with or without a deceptive sidestep. Participants made full-body responses to ‘intercept’ the player and gave a verbal judgement of the opponent's final running direction. Response kinematic and kinetic data were recorded using three-dimensional motion capture cameras and force plates, respectively. Based on response accuracy, the results were separated into deception susceptibility and deception detection windows then signal detection analysis was used to calculate indices of discriminability between genuine and deceptive actions (d’) and judgement bias (c). Analysis revealed that high-skilled and low-skilled players were similarly susceptible to deception; however, high-skilled players detected deception earlier in the action sequence, which enabled them to make more effective behavioural responses to deceptive actions.     

Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360°-environment – Differences between age groups and performance levels

IntroductionAn important requirement for soccer players is the accurate and rapid processing of dynamic and complex visual scenes. Therefore, in high-level youth soccer the players’ perceptual-cognitive skills are highly relevant from a scientific and practical point of view. The aim of the present study was to investigate differences in perceptual-cognitive performance between youth soccer players of different age groups and soccer performance levels in a dynamic 360°-environment.MethodsIn a sample of 292 elite and sub-elite youth soccer players from the age groups U12–U23, perceptual-cognitive skills were assessed using a 360°-multiple object tracking task. An 8 × 2 (age group x performance level) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of age group and soccer performance level on performance in the task.ResultsThe analyses revealed a significant main effect of age group. Post hoc analyses showed that youth players belonging to the older age groups (U16, U17, U19, and U23) performed significantly better in the 360°-multiple object tracking task than players of the youngest age group (U12). Yet no significant age-related differences could be found from age group U16 on. Furthermore, there was a significant effect of soccer performance level on the 360°-multiple object tracking performance in favor of the elite players. Significant differences between elite and sub-elite players within the same age group were only present in the highest age groups U19 and U23.ConclusionsThe results suggest that in a dynamic 360°-environment highly talented youth soccer players show better perceptual-cognitive performance with increasing age. Furthermore, elite youth players exhibit distinctive perceptual-cognitive abilities particularly at the highest age groups. These findings provide interesting implications for science and practice regarding the perceptual-cognitive skills of talented soccer players and their role in talent development.     

Perceived inclusion in youth soccer teams: The role of societal status and perceived motivational goal climate

ObjectivesOur aim was to investigate the link between youth soccer players' perceptions of the coach-initiated motivational goal climate within their team and their perceptions of inclusion as a function of societal status. Societal status refers to one's national background which numerically forms the majority or a minority in a particular society.Design and methodsSurvey data was collected among 245 male youth soccer players (M = 12.9 years, SD = 1.60), who all played in culturally diverse teams in the Netherlands. The societal status of 94 players (38.4%) was majority, and 151 players (61.6%) were classified as minority. To test our main hypothesis, perceived inclusion as the dependent variable was hierarchically regressed on coach-initiated mastery goal climate perceptions, performance goal climate perceptions, societal status, and their interactions.ResultsOverall, mastery goal perceptions and performance goal perceptions of intra-team competition were positively and negatively related, respectively, to perceived team inclusion. As hypothesized, only among players with a societal minority status, perceptions of inclusion were higher when mastery goal climate perceptions were higher and performance goal climate perceptions were lower.Discussion and conclusionOur findings suggest that a coach-initiated mastery-oriented team climate may enhance an inclusive soccer environment in culturally and nationally diverse teams. For societal minority players, intra-team competition should be de-emphasized by the coach in order to strengthen the experience of inclusion.     

The effect of educational priming on face recognition from a silver alert

Abstract

In a between-subjects’ experimental design, we manipulated whether participants viewed an educational video on the importance of Silver Alerts before viewing an older Caucasian female in a Silver Alert. We also examined associations of target recognition with individual difference variables, including gender, ethnicity, Attitudes Towards Older People (ATOP), empathy, conscientiousness, as well as contact and experience with older adults. The results showed an advantage of the priming condition compared to the no-priming condition for correctly identifying the missing woman. Additionally, females correctly identified the missing woman more than males, and Caucasian participants correctly identified the missing woman more than African American participants. Lastly, participants who reported more experience with older adults were more likely to recognize the missing woman. The results suggest that preceding Silver Alerts with information about their importance may increase their effectiveness. Further research is needed to investigate how individual difference variables relate to recognition of missing senior citizens.     

Mechanisms underpinning successful decision making in skilled youth soccer players: an analysis of visual search behaviors

The authors examined the complex interactions between perception, cognition, and expertise by using a film-based decision-making test. They stratified 40 youth soccer players (aged 13.0-15.8 years) into groups by using a within-task criterion. They assigned the players to successful or less successful groups on the basis of their performance on a laboratory-based test of tactical skill. Using soccer-specific film simulations, movement-based response measures, and eye movement registration techniques, the authors determined the players' decision-making processes and skill level. The results showed that investigators can use film-based tests to discriminate soccer players of comparable experience and playing level on the basis of their decision-making skills. When compared with their less successful counterparts, successful decision-makers used more goal-oriented search strategies, which resulted in superior performance, as characterized by faster decision times and greater response accuracy. Successful decision-makers (a) spent more time fixating the player in possession of the ball and (b) alternated gaze more frequently between that player and other areas of the display. An earlier study in which researchers (R. Vaeyens, M. Lenoir, A. M. Williams, L. Mazyn, & R. M. Philippaerts, 2007) stratified participants into groups on the basis of playing level had not revealed those differences. The implication of the present findings is that a within-task criterion provides investigators with a more sensitive approach when they try to identify the mechanisms underlying decision-making skill. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

The Relationship between Viewing Area Size and Visitor Behavior in an Immersive Asian Elephant Exhibit

ABSTRACT

Immersive exhibits are increasingly popular in zoos, being seen as benefiting both animals and visitors. Multiple, discreet viewing areas are one of the key features of immersive zoo exhibits. Small, discreet viewing areas afford the visitor a very personal and intimate experience and may promote an affiliative response between the visitor and the animals on display, thus enhancing the immersive experience. This investigation sought to determine the effect of these viewing areas on visitor behavior, particularly in exhibits where the same animals could be viewed from different-sized viewing areas. This study in the Elephants of the Asian Forest exhibit at Chester Zoo, used unobtrusive visitor tracking to investigate how visitors behave at the exhibit's different-sized viewing areas. The results show that visitors are much more likely to stop, and stay for longer, at the largest viewing areas. Furthermore, there appears to be a proportional increase in visitor interest with increasing viewing area size. These findings have implications for zoo exhibit designers, particularly on the order in which viewing areas should be positioned.     

Variability and creativity in small-sided conditioned games among elite soccer players

ObjectiveSmall-sided conditioned games (SSCG) in soccer are games with a small number of players, often played on smaller than regular pitches and with adapted rules. It has been argued that SSCG foster soccer players’ physical, technical and tactical performances and creativity. This study tested the latter conjecture by analysing video-footage of individual actions of elite soccer players in 5 v 5, 6 v 6, 7 v 7 SSCG played during regular training sessions and 11-aside training matches. Based on the ecological dynamics approach, we hypothesized that smaller formats would result in players making more individual actions. We additionally anticipated that the smaller formats players would induce a larger repertoire of actions, that is, an increased variability of actions, and that such increase in variability would be associated with more creative actions. Along the same lines, we reasoned that midfielders would make more creative actions than defenders and attackers.MethodWe categorized 3555 soccer actions on the ball and without the ball of 24 elite soccer players.ResultsPlayers produced more actions in smaller SSCG formats compared to the larger SSCG format and the 11-aside match. They also produced more different actions in SSCG than the 11-aside match. Furthermore, ten creative actions (i.e., actions that were adequate and only made by one or two players) were discerned. The creative actions emerged most often in the smaller SSCG, and were absent in the 11-aside matches. Finally, strikers, defenders and midfielders did not show reliable differences in terms of number, variability and creativity of action.ConclusionSSCG in soccer do indeed stimulate variability and creativity of individual actions. It is important to confirm whether these immediate effects of SSCG generalize across longer time scales.     

An investigation of students' knowledge of the delayed judgements of learning effect

Judgements of learning (JOL) of paired associates can be made immediately after learning or after a delay, while viewing the first word (cue) only or both words (cue–target) in a pair. Delayed cue-only judgements are more related to subsequent memory performance than delayed cue–target, immediate cue-only, or immediate cue–target judgements. In two experiments we tested students' knowledge of this delayed JOL effect and whether their knowledge increases as a function of task experience (Experiment 2). The majority of the participants did not choose the more effective judgement strategy and they did not systematically alter their behaviour as a function of task experience. Instead, a subset of the participants selected judgement strategies on the basis of a learning goal, that is, a strategy that let them restudy both words in a pair. In sum, most students appear to be unaware of the powerful influence of delayed cue-only JOLs on monitoring accuracy.     

Achievement Goal Orientations,Perceived Ability,and Sportspersonship in Youth Soccer

The present study was designed to examine the contribution of goal orientations and the influence of perceived ability as a moderating factor in predicting sportspersonship in competitive youth soccer. Participants were 511 Norwegian male youth soccer players, from ages 13 to 16, participating in the Norway Cup International Football Tournament. Findings revealed that high task-oriented participants consistently endorsed sportspersonship. However, participants who were high in ego orientation and high in task orientation only partially endorsed low sportspersonship. Perceived ability was a significant factor in that players high in ego orientation and low in perceived ability expressed the lowest respect for rules and officials and endorsed cheating behavior to reach their goals. In contrast, participants high in perceived ability and low in ego orientation expressed the highest level of respect for rules and officials. In this study, being high or low in ego orientation had a significant effect on sportspersonship.     

When mistakes affecting one’s own group result in compensation: Evidence of a compensatory own goal effect

ObjectivesAlthough sports team members often value their teams highly, they sometimes make mistakes and thereby unintentionally put their teams at a disadvantage. Thus, they should be motivated to compensate for their mistake to resolve this discrepancy. To test this hypothesis, we studied whether professional soccer players compensate for their own goals by scoring regular goals in the same game (Study 1) and possible processes underlying such compensation efforts (Study 2).DesignIn Study 1, we compared how frequently prior own goal scorers scored a regular goal in the same game to (a) their expected goal scoring frequencies and (b) their probabilities to score a regular goal following a regular goal by the opposing team. In Study 2, we investigated four possible processes underlying the expected compensatory efforts.MethodWe analyzed all own goals from the first fifty years of the German Bundesliga (N = 889) and possible ensuing regular goals by the own goal scorer. Moreover, we surveyed amateur soccer players about four motives: group performance, individual performance, individual public image, and group public image.ResultsFollowing their own goals, professional soccer players are particularly likely to score regular goals in the same game (i.e., a compensatory own goal effect). Presumably, they primarily do so to secure a good group performance, but the other motives also play a role.ConclusionsGroup members who make highly visible mistakes are motivated to compensate for the disadvantage they caused. Presumably, they mainly do so to secure a good team performance.     

Classical pattern recall tests and the prospective nature of expert performance

It is well established that experts are particularly adept at recalling and/or recognizing the key features of domain-relevant patterns. We compared the recall performance of expert and novice basketball players when viewing static and moving patterns. A novel method of analysis was used where the accuracy of the participants in recalling player positions was compared to actual player positions both at the final frame of pattern presentation and at 50 successive 40 ms increments thereafter. Experts encoded the locations of the players in both the static and moving patterns significantly further in advance of their actual finishing point than did nonexperts. Experts' use of an anticipatory encoding process, which was of a magnitude unmatched by nonexperts, suggests that many previous investigations may have underestimated the extent of the expert advantage in pattern recall.     

Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360°-environment – An investigation of the relationship with soccer-specific performance and the effects of systematic training

IntroductionSoccer is a complex game in which athletes perform in a dynamic 360°-environment. The results of numerous studies highlight the importance of perceptual-cognitive functions for soccer performance. Moreover, in recent years, the idea of improving sports performance through systematic perceptual-cognitive training has been increasingly investigated. Contradictory results and limitations in previous research call for further investigation. The current study aims to investigate both the relationship between perceptual-cognitive performance in a dynamic 360°-environment and soccer performance as well as the effects of perceptual-cognitive training in such an environment on soccer performance.Methods42 youth soccer players aged 11–13 years were tested at a first time of measurement (T1) on their perceptual-cognitive functions using a 360°-multiple object tracking task (360-MOT) and a visuospatial attention task. Soccer performance was assessed using an isolated, validated 360°-passing task and a small-sided game. Subsequently, participants were randomly divided into a perceptual-cognitive training group, an active control group, or a passive control group. Participants in the training group received 360-MOT training twice per week during a 5-week intervention phase, while participants in the active control group received a pseudo video training. Perceptual-cognitive and soccer-specific performance was assessed after the intervention phase at a second time of measurement (T2).ResultsAt T1, there was a significant positive relationship between 360-MOT performance and both the accuracy score in the 360°-passing task and the defensive performance score in the small-sided game. Regarding the perceptual-cognitive training intervention, the analysis at T2 revealed significant task-specific training effects but no transfer effects on perceptual-cognitive or soccer-specific performance.ConclusionsThe results highlight the relevance of perceptual-cognitive performance in a 360°-environment for soccer-specific performance but question the effects of short isolated perceptual-cognitive training interventions on soccer-specific performance.