Third party instigation of aggression as a function of noncooperation and veto power

The purpose of the present study was to test the validity of three hypotheses previously offered to explain the attenuating effects of pacifistic noncooperation on instigative aggression. During part one of the experiment all subjects served as instigators; in the second part they actually set shocks for the target. Subjects instigated either a cooperative or noncooperative confederate, and either did or did not have veto power over the confederate's shock selections. Results of the study indicated that all hypotheses, norm-conformity, compliance, and maintenance of power, were viable for subgroups of subjects. Results were discussed in terms of individual differences and the temporarily inhibiting effects of passive resistance.     

Third party instigated aggression as a function of attack pattern and a nonaggressive response option

In the present study, subjects suggested what shock intensity a confederate should set for her opponent in a reaction time competition. Opponents displayed one of three attack patterns: increasing, decreasing, or minimal provocation. Also, for half the subjects a “no shock” option was available. A control group who had the nonaggressive option and for whom the opponent was nonaggressive (always chose “no shock”) was included. Results revealed that subjects' responses were governed by the norm of reciprocity; also the option reduced instigative aggression for subjects encountering increasing and decreasing provocation, while elevating aggressive response when the opponent was minimally provocative. Results are discussed in terms of attribution and locus of control.     

The effects of verbal and behavioral noncompliance on third party instigation of aggression

Females, assigned to one of four conditions defined in terms of a confederate's behavior, suggested which shock intensity the confederate ought to set for an opponent during a reaction time competition, should the opponent lose the trial (had slower reaction time). Confederates either verbally complied or disagreed with suggestions to set high shock, while either actually setting the intensity suggested or setting a lower intensity. Over trials, the opponent became increasingly provocative. Results revealed the main effects and interaction of confederate's verbal and actual behaviors, as well as provocativeness of the opponent, significantly influenced the level of shock subjects suggested. Subjects with verbally and behaviorally compliant confederates suggested more intense shock than subjects who encountered any noncompliance.     

Pain cues and uncertainity as determinants of aggression in a situation involving repeated instigation.

In contrast to the Buss aggression paradigm, a situation was employed in which subjects were given an expanded range of response options and were exposed to instigation throughout their response period. It was found that (a) despite these changes pain cues depressed aggressiveness in the present situation as they generally do in the Buss paradigm, but that this effect only occurred where the subjects' aggression was initially ineffective in changing their target's behavior; (b) situational uncertainity, which is minimal in a Buss-type situation, was related to aggressiveness; (c) subjects tended to match rather than attempt to control the responses of the target; and (d) the present paradigm is capable of isolating a personality variable related to overall aggressiveness. These data are discussed in terms of other recent paid cue studies that deviate from the standard Buss situation. Generally, the findings suggest the potential of increasing the range of situations in which aggression is studied.     

Frequency of attack in shock-elicited aggression as a function of the performance of individual rats

Fighting rates between paired rats were investigated as a function of the probability of attack by a single animal. Animals from stable high-fighting and low-fighting frequency pairs were intermatched to detect individual high-fighting and low-fighting rats. Pairs of high-fighting animals then received saline or different chlorpromazine dosages during successive sessions. Finally, single high-fighting members of each pair also received the different drug dosages. The chief findings were that: (a) rats showing high fighting rates when matched against each other revealed low fighting rates when matched against one, but not the other member of a low-fighting pair; and (b) high-fighting rats decreased their fighting rates as their own or their opponent's chlorpromazine dosage increased. These results indicated that a low rate of fighting on the part of one rat results in a low fighting rate on the part of its opponent.     

Effects of norms and norm-violations on inhibition and instigation of aggression

It was hypothesized that in a competitive interaction in which an opponent first used threats and fines a) subjects would use the highest level of coercion that could be justified by the available norms, b) subjects would be inhibited by a norm that justified using only low levels of coercion, but c) when the opponent used a magnitude of coercion which exceeded the norm, subjects would also violate the norm and retaliate with an equally high magnitude of coercion, and d) subjects would use the maximum levels of coercion when engaging in a competitive game without norms. These hypotheses were examined in a 3 × 2 factorial experiment in which the amount of coercion allowable by a norm (Low Norm, High Norm, and No Information) and the level of coercion (Low or High) were manipulated. As predicted, aggressive reactions by subjects were inhibited when the provoker conformed to a low norm by using a low level of coercion. On the other hand, subjects retaliated by using a high level of coercion when the level of coercion used by a provoker violated the norm. Subjects who could justify their behavior by the availability of a high punitive norm tended to use all of the coercive power available to them even when the provoker used a low level of coercion. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Evidence for a motor mechanism of pain-induced aggression instigation in humans

The automatic skeletal motor responses of 20 male and 20 female student subjects (aged 20–36) receiving a painful stimulation (electric shock) were studied by examining voluntary concomitant extensions and flexions of the arm. These movements were either of long duration, allowing for an on-line control of their execution or, of short duration, requiring extensive pre-programming. Subjects were instructed either to push or to pull a lever upon receipt of an acoustic signal, which was paired or unpaired with an electric shock. Latencies for long duration movements (regardless of direction) were reduced by reception of painful stimulation. Latencies of short duration extensions and flexions were respectively reduced and increased by painful stimulation. Latencies of short duration movements were larger for females than males, regardless of movement direction. These data suggest that painful stimulation elicits automatic movements which affect programming of the termination of simultaneous voluntary movements. Implications of these findings for the study of aggressive behavior are discussed. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Intrafamily aggression in Turkey: frequency,instigation, and acceptance

The present study was designed (a) to determine the frequency of aggression within different pairs of family members, (b) to define actions that may be construed as instigations of intrafamily aggression when committed by different members of the family, and (c) to investigate acceptance rates for different types of aggression from and toward different family members as reactions to different instigations. Questionnaires were administered verbally to 185 Turkish men and women between the ages of 14 and 75. The reported frequency of aggression was highest in mother-child relationships. Reported frequencies were higher for milder acts of aggression than for harsher acts. Content analyses of definitions of different actions that could be construed as instigations for aggression varied, depending on the person performing the act. Variations were consistent with power differences within the family and with gender stereotypes. The acceptance rate for intrafamily aggression was higher for verbal than for physical aggression and showed variations, depending on the nature of the instigation. Discussion focused on the relationship between intrafamily aggression and control.     

Physical aggression as a function of strength of frustration and instrumentality of aggression

Direct physical aggression was related to three variables through a modification of the Buss (1961) “aggression machine” and procedure. There were two intensities of frustration and a control group established on the basis of the goal gradient principle. Aggression was either instrumental or noninstrumental in overcoming the frustration. Frustration was arbitrary (unreasonable) or nonarbitrary (reasonable). More aggression occurred under the instrumental condition than under the noninstrumental condition. The stronger frustration produced more aggression than the weaker frustration, but only when aggression had previously been experienced as instrumental. No more aggression occurred under the arbitrary frustration condition than under the nonarbitrary condition. The results were discussed in relation to the frustration-aggression hypothesis and the goal gradient principle.     

Schedule-induced aggression as a function of fixed-ratio value

Pigeons responding for food on fixed-ratio reinforcement schedules attacked live target birds when the ratio value was increased, but not when the value was decreased. The frequency of attacks peaked several days after ratio value change, and then gradually decreased to an original level.     

Arbitrariness of frustration: Inhibition or instigation effects on aggression

The purpose of the present research was to assess the relative influence of instigation or inhibition in mediating retaliation after arbitrary or non-arbitrary frustration. Sixty-four men were asked to learn a concept that was being taught by a peer. Although all men were frustrated, half were deliberately frustrated while the other half were not deliberately frustrated by the teacher. Following the task, the learner was given the opportunity to prevent the teacher from gaining employment under conditions where his evaluation was either anonymous or to be made public. The results of a 2 × 2 analysis of variance yielded several significant effects. The data revealed that subjects rejected the teacher more when the frustration was arbitrary than when it was non-arbitrary. Moreover, when the evaluation was anonymous, subjects rejected the teacher more than when the evaluation was to be made public. Furthermore, the difference in the amount of rejection expressed between arbitrary and non-arbitrary conditions was greater when the evaluation was anonymous than when it was public. These results were interpreted as demonstrating the greater contribution of instigatory rather than inhibitory factors in expressing aggression following deliberate or non-deliberate frustration.     

Female aggression as a function of attitudes toward women

The aggressive behavior of female subjects who held either liberal or traditional beliefs concerning the role of women in modern society was investigated as a function of provocation by traditional or liberal male opponents. Traditional female subjects responded more aggressively than liberal females. The male opponent's attitude had no effect on female aggression.This article is based on an honors thesis submitted to the Honors and Experimental College of Kent State University by the second author.     

Aggression as a function of the intensity and pattern of attack

Forty Ss competed with an opponent in a reaction time task to avoid receiving shock. The opponent provided either consistently high intensity attack, increasing, decreasing, or consistently low attack. The S's shock settings for the opponent on each trial and ratings of the opponent after the task served as dependent measures. High intensity attack resulted in high intensity counterattack and negative ratings of the opponent. Low intensity attack resulted in low intensity counterattack and relatively positive ratings for the opponent. Decreasing attack resulted in decreasing counterattack and positive ratings of the opponent. Increasing attack resulted in increasing counterattack and comparatively high aggression ratings of the opponent.     

Human physical aggression as a function of alcohol and threat of harm

The present study investigated the effect of threat of physical harm on the aggressive behavior of intoxicated and nonintoxicated subjects. Forty male undergraduates competed in a reaction time task in which they could deliver shock to an increasingly provocative opponent. In the threat condition, subjects could be hurt by the opponent (they wore a shock electrode), while in the no-threat condition, they could not be hurt by the opponent (the electrode was removed prior to the competition). The results indicated that under conditions of low provocation, the intoxicated subjects behaved more aggressively than the nonintoxicated subjects in both the threatening and nonthreatening condition. However, under conditions of increasing provocation, only the intoxicated subjects in the threatening condition increased their shock settings.