The Influence of Culture, Community, and the Nested‐Self in the Stress Process: Advancing Conservation of Resources Theory

Conservation of Resources (COR) theory predicts that resource loss is the principal ingredient in the stress process. Resource gain, in turn, is depicted as of increasing importance in the context of loss. Because resources are also used to prevent resource loss, at each stage of the stress process people are increasingly vulnerable to negative stress sequelae, that if ongoing result in rapid and impactful loss spirals. COR theory is seen as an alternative to appraisal‐based stress theories because it relies more centrally on the objective and culturally construed nature of the environment in determining the stress process, rather than the individual's personal construel. COR theory has been successfully employed in predicting a range of stress outcomes in organisational settings, health contexts, following traumatic stress, and in the face of everyday stressors. Recent advances in understanding the biological, cognitive, and social bases of stress responding are seen as consistent with the original formulation of COR theory, but call for envisioning of COR theory and the stress process within a more collectivist backdrop than was first posited. The role of both resource losses and gains in predicting positive stress outcomes is also considered. Finally, the limitations and applications of COR theory are discussed.     

Learning under stress: A role for the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM

Stress is known to be a potent modulator of brain function and cognition. While prolonged and/or excessive stress generally exerts negative effects on learning and memory processes, acute stress can have differential effects on memory function depending on a number of factors (such as stress duration, stress intensity, timing and the source of the stress, as well as the learning type under study). Here, we have focused on the effects of ‘acute’ stress, and examined the literature attending to whether the “source of stress” is ‘intrinsic’ (i.e., when stress is originated by the cognitive task) or ‘extrinsic’ (i.e., when stress is induced by elements not related to the cognitive task). We have questioned here whether the neural cell adhesion molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily (NCAM) contributes to the neurobiological mechanisms that translate the effects of these two different stress sources into the different behavioral and cognitive outcomes. NCAM is a cell adhesion macromolecule known to play a critical role in development and plasticity of the nervous system. NCAM and its post-translational modified form PSA-NCAM are critically involved in mechanisms of learning and memory and their expression levels are known to be highly susceptible to modulation by stress. Whereas available data are insufficient to conclude as to whether NCAM mediates extrinsic stress effects on learning and memory processes, we present systematic evidence supporting a key mediating role for both NCAM and PSA-NCAM in the facilitation of memory consolidation induced by intrinsic stress. Furthermore, NCAM is suggested to participate in some of the bidirectional effects of stress on memory processes, with its enhanced synaptic expression involved in facilitating stress actions while its reduced expression being related to impairing effects of stress on memory function.     

Professional burnout

Abstract

Stress has been a ubiquitous concept in health research. We compare stress theories with the operationalization of stress in health research. Although scientific investigation is ideally based on theoretical principles, stress research is seen as often atheoretical or misapplying theories. Major conceptualizations of stress are considered and prominent research avenues in health psychology are analyzed as to the extent they mirror, diverge from, or inform stress conceptualizations. A central conclusion of the paper is that perceived and objective stressors are not only both valid construels of stress, but that they operate differently on psychological and physiological systems.     

Stress and cardiac beta adrenoceptors

Most modern theories about stress recognize that although stress is not a disease, it may be the trigger for the majority of diseases when allostatic overload has been generated. During stress, the glucocorticoids and catecholamines play a key role in the regulation of physiological parameters and homeostasis during stress. In the heart, positive chronotropic, inotropic, and lusitropic responses to catecholamines are mediated by various subtypes of adrenergic receptors (beta-ARs), mainly beta1- and beta2-adrenergic receptors. beta-ARs also control cardiomyocyte growth and death, thus contributing to cardiac remodelling. The structural basis of each beta-AR subtype, as well as their signalling pathways, and adaptive responses to stress are discussed. The participation of beta3- and putative beta4-ARs in the control of cardiac function is also discussed, with emphasis on low affinity beta-AR isoforms and the role they play in the response to the catecholamines under stress. The changes in beta-AR signalling under pathogenic conditions as well as under stress are reviewed.     

Sensitivity to probabilistic orthographic cues to lexical stress in adolescent speakers with autism spectrum disorder and typical peers

Lexical stress refers to the opposition of strong and weak syllables within polysyllabic words and is a core feature of the English prosodic system. There are probabilistic cues to lexical stress present in English orthography. For example, most disyllabic English words ending with the letters "-ure" have first-syllable stress (e.g., "pasture", but note words such as "endure"), whereas most ending with "-ose" have second-syllable stress (e.g., "propose", but note examples such as "glucose"). Adult native speakers of English are sensitive to these probabilities during silent reading. During testing, they tend to assign first-syllable stress when reading a nonword such as "lenture" but second-syllable stress when reading "fostpose" (Arciuli & Cupples, 2006 ). Difficulties with prosody, including problems processing lexical stress, are a notable feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The current study investigated the ability of adolescents with ASD (13-17 years of age) to show this sensitivity compared with a group of typically developing peers. Results indicated reduced sensitivity to probabilistic cues to lexical stress in the group with ASD. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting stress among families in poverty

Using a sample of low‐income mothers enrolled in Early Head Start (n = 65), this study tested the hypothesis that parenting stress is affected by social support and self‐efficacy, in addition to family risk status and family income. Specifically, it was proposed that social support and self‐efficacy are psychological resources that are associated with lower parenting stress levels, and would moderate the impact of family income on parenting stress. A significant proportion of variance in parenting stress was explained by self‐efficacy, family risk, and the interaction of self‐efficacy and family income; family income alone was not a significant predictor of parenting stress levels. Mothers higher in self‐efficacy had lower levels of parenting stress, and income was less associated with parenting stress levels for mothers high in self‐efficacy. Social support was not associated with lower parenting stress levels, nor did social support moderate the effect of income on parenting stress. Family risk was also a strong and reliable predictor of parenting stress, suggesting that family circumstances are perhaps better predictors of parenting stress levels than income alone. These findings suggest that parenting stress among low‐income parents should be viewed as a function of psychological, as well as financial, resources.     

Gastric secretion as a function of acute and chronic stress in the gastric fistula rat.

In Experiment 1 rats exposed to signaled and unsignaled grid shock secreted more gastric acid after shock stress (chronic stress) for 8 days compared to the first 12 hr. of shock stress (acute stress). However, Experiment 2 indicated that the higher gastric acid values under chronic stress were not significantly greater than prestress baseline values. The results are interpreted to reflect an inhibition of gastric acid secretion as a function of acute stress. During chronic stress this inhibition is followed by a habituation of gastric secretory processes which is observed as a return of secretion volume to baseline levels.     

Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress

Major perspectives concerning stress are presented with the goal of clarifying the nature of what has proved to be a heuristic but vague construct. Current conceptualizations of stress are challenged as being too phenomenological and ambiguous, and consequently, not given to direct empirical testing. Indeed, it is argued that researchers have tended to avoid the problem of defining stress, choosing to study stress without reference to a clear framework. A new stress model called the model of conservation of resources is presented as an alternative. This resource-oriented model is based on the supposition that people strive to retain, project, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. Implications of the model of conservation of resources for new research directions are discussed.     

应激环境下亲社会性的增加：来自不同类型的亲社会偏好的研究证据

人们面临对生理或者心理产生威胁的应激事件时并不一定表现出敌意和攻击,也可能表现出更强的亲社会性。研究发现,基于利他动机、规则动机、策略性动机的或者基于自我报告的亲社会偏好在应激环境下都可能增强,这可能和应激环境下直觉增强、共情提升和亲社会行为有助于改善负面情绪方面的机制有关。未来研究可以从应激的性质、诱发方式、影响机制、个体差异和发展特征等方面去理解应激增加亲社会性的条件,从而提高群体韧性。     

Spectral tilt as a cue to word segmentation in infancy and adulthood

Across a variety of tasks, adults respond differently to syllables with multiple stress cues than to syllables with only one cue to stress. This series of experiments was designed to explore how infants and adults use partial stress as a cue to word boundaries. In the first experiment, 9-month-old infants treated syllables with only one cue to stress (spectral tilt) as a strong cue to word boundaries. The second experiment shows that whereas adults treat syllables with multiple cues to stress as word onsets, they do not consider syllables marked only by spectral tilt to be strong indicators of word boundaries. Thethird experiment shows that 1-year-old infants are more adultlike than 9-month-olds in their use of stress cues. Taken together, these results suggest a rapid development of stress cue knowledge in infancy, perhaps due to infants' experience with word segmentation.     

Stress affects dopaminergic signaling pathways in Drosophila melanogaster

Behaviors modulated by dopamine appear to be conserved across species. In the model system Drosophila melanogaster, as in mammals, dopamine modulates female sexual receptivity, a simple form of learning and responses to drugs of abuse. Synthesis, reuptake and binding of dopamine are also evolutionarily conserved. Since stress has been shown to affect dopaminergic signaling pathways in mammals, we investigated the consequences of exposure to diverse stressors on dopaminergic physiology in the fruit fly, D. melanogaster. Animals were exposed to a metabolic stress (starvation), an oxidative stress (via the superoxide anion generator paraquat) or a mechanical stress (gentle vortexing). Sexual maturity, reproductive status, gender and type of stress differentially affected survival. The stress paradigms also resulted in alterations in the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in dopamine biosynthesis. Exposure to these stressors perturbed female sexual receptivity and ovarian development, which are modulated by dopamine, suggesting that dopaminergic physiology is affected as a consequence of stress. Transgenic Drosophila with reduced levels of neuronal dopamine displayed an altered response to these stressors, suggesting that, as in mammals, dopamine is a key element in the stress response.     

Stressbew?ltigung

Training for coping with stress as the core instrument of prevention of stress-related disorders at the individual level is characterized within the framework of prominent theoretical concepts of stress and derived from these. Response-focused, situation-focused and relational definitions of stress as well as the main results of stress research are described. The cognitive-transactional stress theory and the concept of coping are then outlined in their main features and control of stressor exposition, problem-focused coping, cognitive reappraisal, emotion-focused coping and mobilization of social support are characterized as main targets and modes of intervention in coping skills group programs. General aspects of such programs, selected findings on effectiveness and methodological considerations regarding the evaluation are then depicted. It is concluded that training of individual coping skills should be supplemented by preventive intervention at the institutional or organizational level.     

应激对风险和社会决策的影响

应激是有机体在受到真实或者潜在的威胁刺激时所表现出来的全身性非特异性反应, 伴随着紧张和焦虑的心理体验, 交感神经系统的兴奋, 糖皮质激素分泌的增多以及脑干−边缘系统−前额叶神经环路的改变。应激对个体在风险决策行为中的风险寻求和风险回避倾向, 社会决策行为中的利己和利他倾向都会产生重要影响。策略使用异常、习惯化和自动化反应增强、反馈学习过程以及奖惩敏感性的改变是应激影响决策行为的认知基础; 应激激素的分泌, 及杏仁核、前额叶等在决策过程发挥重要作用的脑区活动的改变则为应激作用于决策行为的神经基础。未来研究应重点关注：应激的个体差异与应激对决策影响效应多样性的关系; 综合多种指标对应激进行测量; 考察应激的时序效应; 揭示个体的最佳应激水平; 加强对慢性应激影响决策以及应激对决策影响效应可逆性的研究; 揭示应激影响决策的神经机制。     

A stress and coping perspective on health behaviors: theoretical and methodological considerations

Health behaviors such as eating and exercising have been linked to stress in many studies, and researchers suggest that these links are in large part due to the use of health behaviors to cope with stress. However, health behaviors in the context of coping have received relatively little research attention. In this paper, we briefly survey the literature linking stress, coping, and health behaviors, noting that very little research has explicitly examined health behaviors as coping with stress. We address critical theoretical and methodological issues that arise in applying a stress and coping perspective to health behaviors. We conclude with potential directions for interventions, including the need for conceptually solid and methodologically rigorous research and the development of new measures, and with suggestions for future research. The concepts of self-regulation and stress management and their implications in health behavior research and interventions are also discussed.     

Parenting Beliefs, Parental Stress, and Social Support Relationships

The present study built on prior research by examining the relationship of parental stress and social support to parenting beliefs and behaviors. A sample of 87 parents provided their views concerning the importance of parenting characteristics as well as their level of parental stress and perceived social support. These parents completed the Parent Behavior Importance Questionnaire-Revised, as well as the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Results reveal that, in general, less parenting stress was related to more positive parenting perceptions and more parenting stress was related to less positive parenting perceptions. Perceived social support was not found to moderate the relationship between parenting stress and parenting perceptions. This study extends prior research regarding parenting in relation to stress by adding the dimension of social support. There are substantial implications for parent education, professional practice, and research.     

Workload Variability and Social Support: Effects on Stress and Performance

The current study investigated the effect of workload variability on performance and stress, as well as the role of social support as a potential intervention. Based on previous research it was predicted that a shift in workload from either high to low or low to high would lower performance and increase stress, while the provision of social support would result in higher performance and lower stress. Results revealed significant decrements in performance following workload shifts, though no increase in stress was perceived. Performance in both workload conditions significantly, but inconsistently, increased following the provision of social support and stress significantly decreased following the shift from high to low workload. Implications and future research steps are discussed further.     

Workload Variability and Social Support: Effects on Stress and Performance

The current study investigated the effect of workload variability on performance and stress, as well as the role of social support as a potential intervention. Based on previous research it was predicted that a shift in workload from either high to low or low to high would lower performance and increase stress, while the provision of social support would result in higher performance and lower stress. Results revealed significant decrements in performance following workload shifts, though no increase in stress was perceived. Performance in both workload conditions significantly, but inconsistently, increased following the provision of social support and stress significantly decreased following the shift from high to low workload. Implications and future research steps are discussed further.     

Work stress and employee well‐being: The critical role of Zhong‐Yong

In the pursuit of well‐being at work, work stress is always an inescapable challenge. However, existing research shows that the relationships between work stress and employee outcomes are inconsistent, which indicates that the concept of work stress needs further investigation. Moreover, Zhong‐Yong serves as a cognitive strategy to coping with stress as well as being a pivotal life wisdom and practical rationality. Using a questionnaire survey, this study explores the relationship between work stress, employee well‐being, and Zhong‐Yong beliefs. The work stress was classified into challenge‐ and hindrance‐related stress while emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction were used as well‐being indicators. Using a sample of 394 employees from private enterprises in Taiwan as subjects, the results show that (1) hindrance‐related stress is destructive to employee well‐being; (2) challenge‐related stress is positively associated with emotional exhaustion but has no significant relation with job satisfaction; (3) Zhong‐Yong beliefs mitigate the harm from hindrance‐related stress on employee well‐being; and (4) Zhong‐Yong beliefs weaken the negative effects of challenge‐related stress on emotional exhaustion, and transform challenge‐related stress into eustress for job satisfaction.     

The Nursing Stress Scale: Development of an instrument

Despite increased recognition of the stress experienced by hospital nursing staffs and its effects on burnout, job satisfaction, turnover, and patient care, few instruments exist that can be used to measure stress. This paper describes the development of an instrument, the Nursing Stress Scale (NSS). It consists of 34 items that describe situations that have been identified as causing stress for nurses in the performance of their duties. It provides a total stress score as well as scores on each of seven subscales that measure the frequency of stress experienced by nurses in the hospital environment. The Nursing Stress Scale was administered to 122 nurses on five hospital units. Factor analysis indicated seven major sources of stress that closely paralleled the conceptual categories of stress on which the scale was based. Test-retest reliability as well as four measures of internal consistency indicated that the Nursing Stress Scale and its seven subscales are reliable. Validity was determined by correlating the total score from the Nursing Stress Scale with measures of trait anxiety, job satisfaction, and nursing turnover hypothesized to be related to stress. In addition, the ability of the scale to differentiate hospital units and groups of nurses known to experience high levels of stress resulting in staff turnover was examined.     

积极组织行为学视角下的双重应激管理模式

积极组织行为学的兴起, 为偏向消极应激预防与控制的传统应激管理模式提供了新的思路。应激源对个体而言是中性的, 如果个体对之进行积极评估, 认为应激源可以维持或提升其幸福感, 则引发的反应既是积极应激反应。组织不仅应当注重应对消极应激, 还应当注重诱发和品味积极应激。应对消极应激与品味积极应激并重的双重应激管理模式, 是组织进行应激管理的较好选择。