STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF A NEW DRUG (DIETHYLPROPION)

In a 'triple blind' study on 30 subjects, 50 mg diethylpropion was compared with 10 mg dexamphetamine, 50 mg phenmetrazine, 250 mg caffeine, and placebo. The effects were measured in 5 subjective variables at 40 minutes intervals up to 4 hours. Clear trends were obtained in 'happiness', 'alertness' and 'pleasantness'. Peak effects were seen at about two hours, but in pleasantness the effects of phenmetrazine were increased even after that time. The demonstrated effects were discussed in relation to data on abuse of diethylpropion and phenmetrazine.     

Effects of barbiturates and other sedative hypnotics in pigeons trained to discriminate phencyclidine from saline.

Pigeons were trained to peck the center key (lighted white) of three response keys to turn off the center keylight and to light one of the side keys with a red keylight and the other side key with a green keylight. Five responses (fixed-ratio component) on either side key relighted the center key. Food was delivered following 10 fixed-ratio components on the red key if 1.5 mg/kg phencyclidine had been given before the session. The position of the red and green keylights on the side keys varied randomly each time they were lighted by a peck on the center key. Subsequently, increasing doses of phencyclidine, barbital, amobarbital, phenobarbital, methaqualone, methyprylon, diazepam, oxazepam, and d-amphetamine were substituted for the training dose of phencyclidine, using a cumulative dosing procedure. At low doses of the sedative hypnotics, birds pecked the keylight color associated with saline. At higher doses, birds pecked both key colors. At the highest doses of pentobarbital and amobarbital, some birds responded almost exclusively On he color associated with phencyclidine. When responding on keys of both colors occurred following administration of phencyclidine or other sedative hypnotics, this responding was controlled by key position rather than by key color.     

Hemispheric specialization for emotional expression: a reexamination of results from intracarotid administration of sodium amobarbital

Emotional and behavioral responses to sodium amobarbital injection were examined in 44 epilepsy surgery candidates. Thirty-three emotional reactions occurred in 26 patients, 44% of the reactions following right hemisphere injection and 32% after injection of the left hemisphere. Among all patients examined, laughter/elated mood was statistically more frequent following right hemisphere injection while crying was statistically associated with left hemisphere injections. These observed effects were not related to amobarbital dose, sex, bilateral hemispheric inactivation (angiographic crossflow), general cognitive status, or side of seizure onset. These results support differing specialization of emotional expression in the right and left cerebral hemispheres and their subcortical connections.     

Alcohol and volitional control on affect/sensation,cognitive and perceptual-motor measures

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the hypothesis that one factor underlying the effects of non-pharrnacological variables on a given response to alcohol is the ability to exert control over that behaviour while intoxicated. Subjects were 54 male non-alcoholic drinkers who were randomly assigned to one of six independent groups created by the factorial combination of the independent variables dose (placebo, low, or moderate) and instructions (no instructions or ‘act sober’). The main dependent measures were cognitive and motor task performance and self-reported affect and physiological sensations. Results showed that alcohol strongly influenced motor performance and self-reported physiological sensations but had only minor effects on affect and cognitive performance. Subjects who consumed the low dose of alcohol were able to counteract only alcohol's effects on reaction time and feelings of egotism. Despite the overall strong effects of alcohol on their behaviour, subjects in the act sober condi tions perceived that they were able to counteract the drug's effects, and this resul t was most pronounced among subjects who drank the low dose of alcohol. The implications of these findings for the effects of non-pharmacological factors on responses to alcohol and for the prevention and treatment of alcohol problems are discussed.     

On the sampling errors of factor loadings

The results of three empirical studies on the sampling fluctuation of centroid factor loadings are reported. The first study is based on data which happened to be available on 8 variables for 700 cases and which were factored to three factors for subsamples. The second study is based on fictitious data for 2500 cases which provided separate analyses on 25 samples for each of three situations: 5 variables, one factor; 5 variables, two factors; and 6 variables, three factors. The third study, based on real data for 9 variables and 7000 cases, involves separate factorization for 35 samples of 200 cases. The three studies agree in showing that the sampling behavior of first centroid factor loadings is much like that of correlation coefficients, whereas the sampling fluctuations for loadings beyond the first are disturbingly large.     

Validation of the sensation scale,a measure of subjective physiological responses to alcohol

The Sensation Scale was originally constructed to measure the subjective experience of physiological changes following alcohol consumption. Reduction of the original scale of 31 variables on the basis of face validity resulted in six ‘factors’ comprising 26 variables and one ‘other’ factor. These sortings are shown to have good interrater reliability. Furthermore, evidence is presented from two experiments that five of the six factors discriminated between nonalcoholic male subjects who drank either a beverage containing a moderate dose of alcohol or a nonalcoholic beverage.     

Relationship between physical prowess and cognitive function

There is some evidence about the low relationship between physical prowess and cognitive function (Posthuma, Mulder, Boomsma & de Geus, 2002). The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between cognitive variables (spatial ability, reasoning, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and reasoning and verbal comprehension) and physical prowess in sport performance (agility circuit, coordination circuit, horizontal jump, swimming and sprint racing). Two studies were performance. In the first one we applied a battery of standardized cognitive tests and a battery of physical grading tests to 400 subjects. When we applied factor analysis to the physical prowess and the cognitive variables, we found one general factor in cognitive variables and one general factor in physical prowess. We found a low relationship between both factors (.21). In the second study we compare the cognitive abilities in elite and amateur sport people. Results show that elite gymnastics people present higher cognitive abilities than amateur sportspeople. It should be relevant in order to clarify the total set of variables involved in sport performance.     

Feasibility of a Community Intervention for the Prevention of Suicide and Alcohol Abuse with Yup’ik Alaska Native Youth: The Elluam Tungiinun and Yupiucimta Asvairtuumallerkaa Studies

The Elluam Tungiinun and Yupiucimta Asvairtuumallerkaa studies evaluated the feasibility of a community intervention to prevent suicide and alcohol abuse among rural Yup’ik Alaska Native youth in two remote communities. The intervention originated in an Indigenous model of protection, and its development used a community based participatory research process. Feasibility assessment aimed to assess the extent to which (1) the intervention could be implemented in rural Alaska Native communities, and (2) the intervention was capable of producing measurable effects. Scales maximally sensitive to change were derived from earlier measurement work, and the study contrasted implementation process and outcomes across the two communities. In one community, medium dose response effects (d = .30–.50), with dose defined as number of intervention activities attended, were observed in the growth of intermediate protective factors and ultimate variables. In the other community, medium dose effects were observed for one intermediate protective factor variable, and small dose effects were observed in ultimate variables. Differences across communities in resources supporting intervention explain these contrasting outcomes. Results suggest implementation in these rural Alaska settings is feasible when sufficient resources are available to sustain high levels of local commitment. In such cases, measureable effects are sufficient to warrant a prevention trial.     

SUBJECTIVE ESTIMATION OF DRUG-INDUCED CHANGES IN ACTIVATION LEVEL

For comparative evaluation of the subjective effects of 50 mg chlorpromazine, 0.10 g amobarbital and 10 mg amphetamine (phenopromine. sulf.) two types of formalized rating procedures—a verbal check list and graphic rating scales—were administered to 187 university students. Repeated self-ratings were performed 45, 90 and 180 minutes after oral intake. By the check-list method the expected difference between amphetamine and chlorpromazine was significantly established in all the three ratings. Only in the 45-minute rating was a significant difference obtained between amobarbital and amphetamine. The graphic rating scales were clearly less efficient as judged from the greater proportion reporting 'no change'.     

Beyond Speech Lateralization: A Review of the Variability, Reliability, and Validity of the Intracarotid Amobarbital Procedure and Its Nonlanguage Uses in Epilepsy Surgery Candidates

While the intracarotid amobarbital procedure (IAP) was originally utilized to lateralize speech functions as an aid in the surgical treatment of epilepsy, additional uses for the IAP have emerged including: (1) the use of the IAP to predict post-surgical memory changes, including both global amnesia and smaller, yet significant, material-specific memory deficits; (2) the use of the IAP to provide confirmatory evidence of lateralization of seizure focus; and (3) the use of the IAP to predict post-surgical relief from seizures. While the literature on the IAP is extensive and growing, its utility is marred by the wide variability associated with the procedure itself from epilepsy center to center. This variability renders comparisons among IAP studies problematic and conclusions about IAP efficacy difficult. The variability associated with the amobarbital procedures, as well as the reliability and the validity of the IAP in its nonlanguage uses is reviewed here. A special emphasis is devoted to research conducted in the last decade. Also discussed is the future of the IAP including anticipated research directions.     

Are there interactions among dysfunctional beliefs in obsessive compulsive disorder?

Contemporary cognitive models of obsessive-compulsive disorder emphasize the importance of various types of dysfunctional beliefs, such as beliefs about inflated responsibility, perfectionism and the importance of controlling one's thoughts. These beliefs have been conceptualized as main effects, each influencing obsessive-compulsive symptoms independent of the contributions of other beliefs. It is not known whether beliefs interact with one another in their influence on obsessive-compulsive symptoms. To investigate this issue, data from 248 obsessive-compulsive disorder patients were analyzed. Dependent variables were the factor scores on the 4 Padua Inventory subscales. Predictor variables were the factor scores from the 3 factors (inflated responsibility, perfectionism and controlling one's thoughts) of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire and their 2- and 3-way interactions. Regression analyses revealed significant main effects; in almost all analyses one or more of inflated responsibility, perfectionism, and controlling one's thoughts factors predicted scores on the Padua factors even after controlling for general distress. There was no evidence that beliefs interact in their effects on obsessive-compulsive symptoms, thereby providing a relatively unusual instance in which a simpler explanation (main effects only) is just as powerful as a more complex model.     

Empathy: Its effect on how counsellors are perceived

The importance of sex of counsellor, ethnicity, empathy and client-counsellor sex-pairings on clients' perceptions of the counsellor was investigated. 96 students were asked to rate black or white, male or female, and empathic or non-empathic counsellors, on attractiveness, expertness and trustworthiness. Contrary to previous research, sex of the counsellor, and sex of student-counsellor pairings, had no significant effect on counsellor ratings. Ethnicity of counsellor - which has been largely ignored in research until recently - was found to be a highly signifcant factor in students' ratings of the counsellor: black counsellors were rated significantly higher than white counsellors on attractiveness, expertness and trustworthiness. The importance of empathy as a requisite for the counselling process was supported: counsellors were rated higher on all three variables if they used an empathic approach. There were no interaction effects between the variables.     

Quantitative and Qualitative Evaluation of Patterns of Cerebral Language Dominance : An Amobarbital Study

As a part of presurgical evaluation, 173 patients received bilateral intracarotid amobarbital tests for determination of cerebral language dominance. Language testing during intracarotid amobarbital procedures (IAP) consisted of the following tasks: automatic speech, sentence comprehension, body commands, naming, repetition, reading, and spontaneous speech. Patterns of cerebral language dominance were evaluated and discussed on five levels of analysis: (1) quantification of language dominance on the basis of a lateralization index derived from the total language scores in each IAP; (2) determination of five dominance subpatterns (left or right dominant, strongly bilateral, and incomplete left or right dominant) according to quantification performed on level (I) and clinical judgment; (3) qualitative differentiation of three kinds of bilaterality (positive, negative, and general) according to total language performance in left and right IAP; (4) analysis of grouped linguistic subfunctions extracted from performance in specific IAP subtests; (5) extraordinary individual case histories. The distribution of lateralization indices revealed only partially continuous degrees of lateralization, especially between the left-dominant and bilateral subgroups. As for the clinically oriented classification, incomplete left dominance is frequent (16.2%), while incomplete right dominance does not occur at all. Atypical dominance patterns are mostly correlated to bilateral and/or extratemporal foci. Concerning grouped subfunctions, a rotated factor matrix statistic yields an analysis of clusters of IAP subtests, where functions involving expressive language capacities are separated from those that are purely receptive. Further analyses of bilaterality subpatterns suggest that there are mainly four bilaterality phenomena, namely interhemispheric dissociation, double representation, unilateal representation of subfunctions, and partial representation of subfunctions in either hemisphere. Application of these differentiations to individual cases yields additional evidence that can be used in patient selection for operation in order to avoid postoperative neuropsychological deficits, especially in candidates for extratemporal surgery. In conclusion, a multilevel analysis of LAP language data is recommended since it permits a detailed account of varieties of language dominance patterns and contributes to more adequate presurgical decision-making in planned operations in cognitively relevant brain areas.     

Behavior analysis and the primary prevention of occupational injuries

Contemporary cognitive models of obsessive‐compulsive disorder emphasize the importance of various types of dysfunctional beliefs, such as beliefs about inflated responsibility, perfectionism and the importance of controlling one's thoughts. These beliefs have been conceptualized as main effects, each influencing obsessive‐compulsive symptoms independent of the contributions of other beliefs. It is not known whether beliefs interact with one another in their influence on obsessive‐compulsive symptoms. To investigate this issue, data from 248 obsessive‐compulsive disorder patients were analyzed. Dependent variables were the factor scores on the 4 Padua Inventory subscales. Predictor variables were the factor scores from the 3 factors (inflated responsibility, perfectionism and controlling one's thoughts) of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire and their 2‐ and 3‐way interactions. Regression analyses revealed significant main effects; in almost all analyses one or more of inflated responsibility, perfectionism, and controlling one's thoughts factors predicted scores on the Padua factors even after controlling for general distress. There was no evidence that beliefs interact in their effects on obsessive‐compulsive symptoms, thereby providing a relatively unusual instance in which a simpler explanation (main effects only) is just as powerful as a more complex model.     

Is Speech Arrest during Wada Testing a Valid Method for Determining Hemispheric Representation of Language?

Background and objective: The intracarotid amobarbital procedure, or Wada test, is the method of choice to determine hemispheric representation of language, and is routinely used in the presurgical evaluation for intractable epilepsy. Some investigators perform comprehensive language assessments, but others base language lateralization solely on speech arrest. This study sought to determine whether speech arrest alone during Wada testing provides valid data regarding language lateralization. Methods: The subjects (previously reported) were 21 patients evaluated for intractable epilepsy, who underwent language lateralization by Wada testing and functional MRI (FMRI). For each patient, language representation was determined by calculating: (1) a Wada laterality index based exclusively on speech arrest; (2) a Wada laterality index based on comprehensive language assessment; and (3) an FMRI laterality quotient. Correlation coefficients and categorical classifications were analyzed. Results: There was no significant correlation between the Wada laterality quotient derived from duration of speech arrest and either the comprehensive Wada language laterality score (r= .35,p= .12) or FMRI language laterality score (r= .32,p= .16). Categorical classification as left, right or bilateral language also showed marked discordance between speech arrest and the other two methods. Conclusion: Duration of speech arrest during Wada testing is not a valid measure of language dominance.     

The partial punishment effect following minimal acquisition training: Sodium amobarbital and the stimulus properties of early punished trials

In a runway investigation, six groups of rats received limited runway training such that partial punishment, partial reinforcement, or continuous reinforcement was accompanied by sodium amobarbital or saline. Following an interpolated phase of continuous reinforcement without injections, all groups were given punished extinction. The entire experiment was conducted under widely spaced conditions (ITI = 24 hr). It was found that partial punishment increased resistance to punished extinction relative to partially and continuously reinforced controls when acquisition was given under saline. When partial punishment training was accompanied by amobarbital this effect was eliminated. The drug was observed to have no effect on the punished extinction performance of the partial reinforcement and continuous groups, respectively. Moreover, the partial reinforcement effect (PRE) did not generalize to punished extinction. These data provide information concerning the difference between the stimuli associated with the early trials of punishment and nonreward and indicate that the former but not the latter contain emotional elements.     

新世纪20年国内心理统计方法研究回顾

新世纪头20年, 国内心理学11本专业期刊一共发表了213篇统计方法研究论文。研究范围主要包括以下10类(按论文篇数排序)：结构方程模型、测验信度、中介效应、效应量与检验力、纵向研究、调节效应、探索性因子分析、潜在类别模型、共同方法偏差和多层线性模型。对各类做了简单的回顾与梳理。结果发现, 国内心理统计方法研究的广度和深度都不断增加, 研究热点在相互融合中共同发展; 但综述类论文比例较大, 原创性研究论文比例有待提高, 研究力量也有待加强。     

Demographic variables, smoking variables, and outcome across five studies.

OBJECTIVE: Intervention effectiveness can potentially be affected by membership in different demographic subgroups (race, ethnicity, gender, age, and education level) or smoking behavior variables (time to first cigarette, longest previous quit attempt, number of attempts in the past year, number of cigarettes, and stage of change). Previous research on these 2 sets of variables has produced mixed results. DESIGN: This secondary data analysis combined data from 5 effectiveness trials (a random-digit-dial sample [N=1,358], members of an HMO [N=207], parents of students recruited for a school-based study [N=347], patients from an insurance provider list [N=535], and employees [N=175]) in which smokers were all proactively recruited from a defined population and all received the same expert system intervention. The intervention produced a consistent 22% to 26% point prevalence cessation rate across the 5 studies. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The main outcome measures were 24-hr point prevalence, 7-day point prevalence, 30-day prolonged abstinence, and 6-month prolonged abstinence. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in outcome across gender, race, and ethnicity subgroups. There were significant differences and small effect sizes for age and education subgroups. There were significant differences and large effect sizes for all 5 smoking behavior variables. DISCUSSION: Demographic variables are static variables, whereas the smoking variables are more dynamic, that is, open to change. Given the dynamic nature of the smoking variables and the large effect sizes, interventions tailored on the smoking variables should be more successful.     

Aided speech-identification performance in single-talker competition by older adults with impaired hearing

This study examined the effects of increased processing load on the closed-set speech-identification performance of young and older adults in a one-talker background. Since the older adults had impaired hearing, speech-identification performance was measured for spectrally shaped stimuli comparable to those experienced when wearing well-fit hearing aids. There were three groups of listeners: (1) 19 older adults with high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss; (2) 10 young adults with normal hearing who were assessed with the same spectrally shaped stimuli as the older adults; (3) 9 young adults with normal hearing who were assessed without spectral shaping and at a poorer target-to-competition ratio in an effort to equate overall performance to that of the older adults. In addition to this group factor, there were three within-participant repeated-measures independent variables designed to increase the demands on processing for the target and competing speech stimuli. These were: (1) competition meaningfulness (played in forward or reverse direction); (2) gender match between target and competing talkers (same or different gender); and (3) talker uncertainty (either the same target/competition talker pair or one of many such pairs on each trial). These three repeated-measures independent variables were examined in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. They showed roughly independent and additive effects on speech-identification such that combinations of these variables decreased performance cumulatively. Older adults performed worse than young adults across the board, but also showed diminished relative improvement as the processing load was decreased. Individual differences in performance among the older adults were also examined.     

Word reading and picture naming in Italian

Results from two separate norming studies of lexical access in Italian were merged, permitting a comparison of word-reading and picture-naming latencies and the factors that predict each one for an overlapping subsample of 128 common nouns. Factor analysis of shared lexical predictors yielded four latent variables: a frequency factor, a semantic factor, a length factor, and a final factor dominated by frication on the initial phoneme. Age of acquisition (AoA) loaded highly on the first two factors, suggesting that it can be split into separate sources of variance. Regression analyses using factor scores as predictors showed that word reading and picture naming are both influenced by the frequency/AoA factor. The semantics/AoA factor influenced only picture naming, whereas the length and frication factors influenced only word reading. Generalizability of these results to other languages is discussed, including potential effects of cross-language differences in orthographic transparency.