Self-Monitoring and Life Satisfaction of Individuals With Traditional and Nontraditional Sexual Orientations

Our previous work found that high self-monitoring enhanced the job effectiveness of individuals in gender-nontraditional occupations such as men in nursing and women in management. This study tested whether self-monitoring would enhance the life satisfaction of individuals with nontraditional sexual orientations: lesbians and gay men. The revised Self-monitoring Scale and the Life Satisfaction Index were completed by 132 gay and lesbian individuals and by 137 heterosexuals. Moderated regressions indicated self-monitoring was significantly related to life satisfaction of all individuals but there was no interaction with sexual orientation. Significant interactions between self-monitoring, gender, and relationship status indicated self-monitoring Factor A, Ability to Modify Self-Presentation, bolstered the life satisfaction of all women who were not in relationships whereas both Factors A, and Factor B, Sensitivity to the Expressive Behavior of Others, bolstered the life satisfaction of all women in relationships. There were no significant interactions with sexual orientation in the regressions. Regardless of sexual orientation, women had higher life satisfaction scores than men. The failure of the principal hypothesis suggests that the previously identified enhancement effect of self-monitoring may be limited to public occupational roles where social skills of impression management are requisite to effective job performance. The enhancement effect may not extend to private aspects of personal identity.     

Associations among job satisfaction, optimism, pessimism, and psychosomatic symptoms for employees in the government sector in Kuwait

The present study examined associations among job satisfaction and optimism, pessimism, and psychosomatic symptoms in a sample of 718 Kuwaiti employees (350 men and 368 women). Men scored significantly higher than women on both the scales of Job Satisfaction and Optimism, while women scored significantly higher than men on both scales for Pessimism and Psychosomatic Symptoms. Job satisfaction scores correlated significantly and positively with Optimism scores and negatively with Pessimism scores. There was also a significant negative correlation between scores on Optimism and Pessimism, and a significant negative correlation between scores on Optimism and Psychosomatic symptoms. Results were discussed within the Kuwaiti context.     

Intimacy, passion, and commitment in young romantic relationships: successfully measuring the triangular theory of love

The previous tests of the Triangular Theory of Love have proven problematic, specifically centered on measurement of the three components of Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment. Factor analysis of a new set of measures for 123 women and 110 men indicated support for three distinct factors. Sex differences indicated that women scored significantly higher on Intimacy and Commitment than men. Components were also significantly related to a measure of Relational Satisfaction. Regression analysis indicated that each component predicted significant variance for scores on Satisfaction.     

Empirical testing of the Satisfaction With Life Scale: a South African pilot study

To explore applicability of the Satisfaction With Life Scale in a different racial and cultural context (South Africa), a questionnaire containing items on basic demographic characteristics, the 5-item Satisfaction With Life Scale, and the 10-item Rosenberg Self-esteem scale, was administered to a small convenient sample of 34 Black (13 men and 21 women) and 20 White (9 men and 11 women) South Africans aged between 17 and 70 years. As expected, Black respondents were less likely to have completed high school than White respondents and were more likely to be unemployed. Factor analysis of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (coefficient alpha of .92) yielded a single factor, accounting for 76% of the variance. Mean differences of the two groups were not significant when education and employment status were controlled. As anticipated, Life Satisfaction scores were correlated .86 with rated Self-esteem. Given the very small convenient sample, results are consistent with robust findings in western countries and encourage replication on a larger, representative sample.     

Type A behavior, job satisfaction, and stress among black professionals.

Most studies of work-related Type A behavior have been conducted with samples of white men. Using a mail questionnaire to assess Type A behavior, job satisfaction, and daily stress and tension among 250 black men and 233 black women public accountants, the prevalence of Type A behavior and its relationship with satisfaction and stress were highly consistent with those reported for other samples of white men and women.     

Do Professional Women Have Lower Job Satisfaction Than Professional Men? Lawyers as a Case Study

A central paradox in studies of gender and jobsatisfaction is why women's job satisfaction is notlower than men's, given that women's jobs are ofteninferior. The explanation most commonly used is that women have lower expectations than men becausethey compare themselves to women while men comparethemselves to men. However, general studies maybemasking a gender difference in higher occupationallevels. The current study explores this possibility byanalyzing the 326 lawyers in the 1990 National Survey ofLawyers' Career Satisfaction. Of the women, 9% wereminorities, and of the men, 3%. It is found that women have significantly lower jobsatisfaction. Women's lower job satisfaction is dueprimarily to their lack of influence and promotionalopportunity. The results support the assertion thatprofessional women have the same expectations asprofessional men, not lower, but because of inequalityin opportunity, the women have lower jobsatisfaction.     

Gender differences in marital quality and well-being in Chinese married adults

The present study addressed the issue of gender differences in marital quality and well-being in Chinese married men (N= 738) and women (N= 761). The results showed that males had significantly higher scores on the Chinese Dyadic Adjustment Scale and Chinese Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale. While a longer duration of marriage was associated with higher levels of dyadic consensus and affectional expression in men, the duration of marriage was negatively related to marital adjustment and marital satisfaction in women. The data also showed that women displayed more psychiatric symptoms and midlife crisis problems and they had lower levels of positive mental health and perceived health status than men. While marital quality was positively related to well-being in both men and women, the impact of marital quality on well-being was generally found to be greater in women than in men.     

Telephone versus mail interventions for maintenance of physical activity in older adults.

Although telephone and mail are often used to promote physical activity adoption, their ability to produce long-term maintenance is unclear. In this study, 140 men and women aged 50-65 years received 1 year of telephone counseling to adopt higher (i.e., more vigorous) versus lower intensity (i.e., moderate) exercise. After 1 year, participants were rerandomized to a 2nd year of contact via (a) telephone and mail or (b) predominantly mail. Participants who were prescribed higher intensity exercise and received predominantly mail had better exercise adherence during the maintenance year than those who received telephone and mail. Both strategies were similarly effective in promoting maintenance in the lower intensity condition. Results suggest that after successful adoption of physical activity with the help of telephone counseling, less intensive interventions are successful for physical activity maintenance in older adults.     

Interactions with senior managers: Perceived differences by race/ethnicity and by gender

Differences among junior managers in their perceptions of various types of interactions with senior managers and levels of self-efficacy in initiating interactions were investigated. Study variables were determined following preliminary focus group interviews. These variables were subjected to a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANACOVA) to assess differences among the various racial, ethnic, and gender groups. Data were derived from a 53% response rate to a survey of 3106 junior managers in a Fortune 500 company. Subjects included Asian men (n = 29), Asian women (n = 21), Black men (n = 94), Black women (n = 84), Hispanic men (n = 28), Hispanic women (n = 18), White men (n = 708), and White women (n = 647). Results reveal that women perceived having less access to career-related interactions and to informal interactions with senior managers. Women also reported lower levels of self-efficacy in their personal skills and abilities in informal social activities. Black managers presented higher levels of self-efficacy related to initiating career-related interactions than White managers and Asian managers. Asian managers reported lower levels of self-efficacy related to initiating informal interactions with senior managers than Black, Hispanic, and White managers. Findings suggest that gender has a stronger influence than race or ethnicity on the nature of interactions with senior managers within this organization.This research was funded by a Susquehanna University Research Grant. The authors would like to thank Stacy Ross for her assistance with data collection and Richard K. Caputo, Paul Dion, and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on an earlier version of this article.     

Race-related stress,quality of life indicators,and life satisfaction among elderly African Americans

This article examined the relationships among race-related stress, quality of life indicators, and life satisfaction among elderly African Americans. A sample of 127 elderly African Americans, consisting of 87 women and 26 men (and 14 missing values), were administered the Index of Race-Related Stress, the Satisfaction With Life Scale, and the 36-item Short-Form Health Survey. Results indicated that elderly African American men and women differed significantly with regard to institutional and collective racism-related stress. In addition, the authors found that institutional racism-related stress was a significant predictor of psychological health in this sample of elderly African Americans.     

Are life satisfaction and self-esteem distinct constructs? A black South African perspective

As part of a longitudinal project on Quality of Life, a study was undertaken to extend the applicability of the 5-item Satisfaction With Life Scale, developed in the USA, in South Africa. Data on basic sociodemographic characteristics, the scale, and the 10-item Rosenberg Self-esteem scale were available for 360 Black South Africans (151 men and 209 women), ages 21 to 83 years (M = 38.6 yr., SD = 10.3). Factor analysis applied to scale scores gave two factors, accounting for 71% of the variance. Factor I was loaded by 10 Self-esteem items and Factor II by four of the five Life Satisfaction items. Coefficient alpha was .77 for the Satisfaction With Life Scale and .97 for the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Life Satisfaction was related to Self-esteem (r = .17, p < .01). It was concluded that Life Satisfaction and Self-esteem appear to be distinct, unitary constructs, but responses to Item 5 on the Satisfaction With Life Scale require cautious interpretation and may contribute to the weak r, although so may the collectivist culture of Black South Africans.     

Religiosity, health, and well-being among Kuwaiti personnel

In a sample of 424 Kuwaiti personnel (219 men, 205 women; M age = 37.6 yr., SD = 8.9; M age = 33.4 yr., SD = 7.9, respectively), self-ratings of religiosity were significantly and positively correlated with the self-ratings of physical health, mental health, and happiness, as well as the Oxford Happiness Inventory, the Love of Life Scale, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale among men and women. Principal components analysis of the correlation matrix yielded only one salient factor labeled "Well-being, health and religiosity" that explained 52.7% and 56.5% of the variance for men and women, respectively. Religiosity is an important element in the lives of the majority of the present sample of Kuwaiti Muslim employees.     

Gender Schematicity,Gender Identity Salience,and Gender‐Linked Language Use

Using self‐categorization theory, the effects of sex, chronic gender accessibility (i.e., gender schematicity), and gender identity salience on gender‐linked language use in e‐mail are examined. Results confirmed interactive effects only. Gender schematic men and women whose gender was salient used typical gender‐linked language (e.g., men used male language). With low gender salience, schematic men and women used countertypical gender‐linked language (e.g., men used female language). The language of nonschematics varied minimally. Results are discussed regarding previous research on gendered language, the nature of gender identity salience, and examining gendered language in computer‐mediated communication.     

The Effectiveness of Two Positive Career Counseling Modules for Working Parents in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of 2 positive career counseling modules—the strength‐centered career counseling (SCC) module and the goal‐oriented career counseling module—for working parents in Taiwan (23 men and 28 women). The study used an experimental design, and the instruments were the Personal Growth Initiative Scale, Job Satisfaction Inventory, and Career Self‐Efficacy Scale. A within‐subjects analysis of variance indicated that both modules were effective in personal growth initiative and career self‐efficacy, and SCC particularly had continuous effects on both of them. Advanced versions for the 2 modules and implications for future practice are discussed.     

Explaining Gender‐Based Language Use: Effects of Gender Identity Salience on References to Emotion and Tentative Language in Intra‐ and Intergroup Contexts

An experiment tested hypotheses derived from self‐categorization theory’s explanation for gender‐based language use. Under high or low conditions of gender salience, men and women sent e‐mail to an ostensible male or female recipient yielding either an intra‐ or an intergroup setting. Gender salience was manipulated so that the stereotypically feminine characteristic of supportiveness was the sole attribute that defined the prototype of intergender relations. Messages were examined for references to emotion and tentative language. Women referenced emotion significantly more than men in the high gender salience condition, but this gender difference was reduced when salience was low. Moreover, women with high gender salience in an intergroup context referenced emotion more than women with high salience in an intragroup setting or men with high salience in either an intra‐ or an intergroup context. Tentative language use, however, was similar across all conditions as anticipated.     

Division of Labor in Student Households: Gender Inequality,Perceived Justice,and Satisfaction

Two studies of households of students sharing flats (Study 1) and cohabitating student couples (Study 2) examined gender inequalities in the division of household labor and related differences in perceived justice of and satisfaction with the division. Results showed that women spent more time and made larger contributions to the majority of tasks in both types of households although male and female students did not differ in time availability and resources contributed to the household. Perceived justice was equally high with both sexes, but women were somewhat less satisfied than men. Both sexes regarded the division of household tasks more just the less it departed from an equal division. Gender role orientation moderated this correlation with men but not with women. Satisfaction ratings were positively correlated with perceived justice and negatively correlated with the relative size of participants' contributions to the household tasks.     

Publication rates of male and female academic clinical psychologists in California

Compared here was the publication rate of men and women surveyed by mail (480 academic clinical psychologists in California) regarding number of publications, self-perception of their role of researcher versus teacher, variables related to research opportunity (grants, time spent in research), and type of institution in which they are employed. The men had 1.6 as many publications per year as did the women, and the semipartial correlation was -.21 for sex in the last step of a multiple regression and accounted for an additional 4% of the variance. Thus, the men published more, even when ostensible opportunities were controlled. For this sample variables of sex and self-perception of role of researcher versus teacher were more highly correlated with number of publications than were the research opportunity variables of grants, time spent in research, and type of academic institution of employment.     

The Career Satisfaction Scale: Response bias among men and women

Recent studies demonstrate an increasing emphasis on subjective career success. This construct is typically measured using self-report scales, with the most used instrument being the Career Satisfaction Scale of Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley [Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S., & Wormley, W. M. (1990). Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 64–86]. As career success is often studied in relation to gender, one may wonder whether men and women rate subjective career success, as measured by the Career Satisfaction Scale (Greenhaus et al., 1990), in the same manner—which is an important requirement when interpreting sex differences. Therefore, this study provides a rigorous evaluation of the Career Satisfaction Scale (Greenhaus et al., 1990) in terms of measurement invariance. The results show that gender invariance of the Career Satisfaction Scale (Greenhaus et al., 1990) does not hold. Implications of these findings in terms of optimal measurement of the subjective career success construct are spelled out.     

Contextual Factors Affecting the Organizational Commitment of Diverse Police Officers: A Levels of Analysis Perspective

This study examined the relationship of contextual factors to organizational commitment among 372 police officers in 13 police commands in New York City's public housing projects. Setting-level variables were formed by aggregating officers' perceptions of management support and fairness and management sensitivity to diversity within commands and within three subgroups formed by gender and ethnicity. Individual-level measures were deviations from these subgroup means within commands as well as perceptions of support from family and social support and negative interactions within commands. Overall, path analyses, confirmed by hierarchical linear modeling, showed direct setting-level effects for management support and fairness, but not for sensitivity to diversity, on organizational commitment. Both women and minority men experienced more negative social interactions than white men; support from management, co-workers, and family were important predictors of commitment. Family support was particularly important for women.     

The Relationship of Developmental Tasks to Life Satisfaction, Moral Reasoning, and Occupational Attainment at Age 28

This study was conducted to empirically investigate the relationship of several developmental tasks to the developmental outcomes of Life Satisfaction, Moral Reasoning, and Occupational Attainment at age 28. Structured retrospective interviews of 62 Midwestern men and women in their late twenties were converted to variable scores and submitted to quantitative analyses. The results indicated differing patterns of influence on each of the outcomes, clarifying the relative importance of each developmental task, and also highlighting the multi-faceted nature of human development.