智慧的特质论与状态论：分歧、统整与新解

特质论与状态论之争是智慧研究领域新兴的热门话题。特质论认为智慧是稳定且不易干预的人格特质;状态论认为智慧是一种相对容易波动的心智状态,短期内可以改变且容易受外在情境的影响。基于人格心理学研究的“密度分布说”则为特质论与状态论之争提供了系统的整合模型。受此启发,本研究在以往理论的基础上提出“特质-状态正态分布假说”,旨在进一步补充完善“密度分布说”并为特质论与状态论研究提供新的理论视角。未来研究仍需结合多种智慧测量手段,加强纵向追踪研究,探索智慧本质观与密度分布说的关系,开展相应的跨文化研究。     

6～9岁儿童特质观与其人格特质的关系

为考察特质观与稳定的行为方式之间的关系,采用情境故事法和问卷法分别对180名6～9岁儿童进行了特质稳定性理解的个别测查和人格特质的教师评定。结果发现,持三种不同特质观（实体论、中间论、渐变论）的6～9岁儿童开始在认真有恒、自制稳重、聪慧性、开朗活泼和同情利他五种人格特质行为上表现出显著差异;6～9岁儿童的特质观能够预测以上五种人格特质,丽儿童“开朗插泼”和“聪慧性”特质行为的线性组合是预测儿童特质观的最佳指标。这些研究结论有助于说明关于特质的认知在调解和制约个体稳定的行为理解和反应中的重要作用,验证了人格认知流派的观点;支持了认知与人格之间交互作用的理论假设;对于解释年幼儿童发展中的不适应问题具有一定的意义。     

境遇伦理与传统道德选择方法之比较

境遇伦理(境遇论)作为一种诞生和发展较晚、逐渐流行、不可或缺的道德选择方法,与传统的功利论、道义论和德性论三种道德选择方法有何异同是一个值得探讨的问题。通过比较可以凸显境遇伦理的方法论特质、价值与意义,以及传统的功利论、道义论和德性论三种道德选择方法的特征。     

列维纳斯伦理学中的“我”与“家”

在现代性主流话语中,"家"被塑造为一种压抑个体、囚禁自我的"总体"乃至"牢笼"。但在列维纳斯的伦理学中,家被赋予一种本源性的地位:它不仅不再是束缚自我的囚笼,反而是主体自身或自我得以构建的前提,是自我从存在与自然的统治中解放出来的必经之途,同时也是主体自我与世界发生关联的中介和根据。家被视为自我或意识的身体。就此而言,家不能也无法被还原或扬弃。在这个意义上,列维纳斯对家的分析首先是一种存在论-生存论分析,但这样一种存在论-生存论分析只是列维纳斯对家的分析的起点,其对家的思考最终要从存在论-生存论分析走向伦理学分析。     

故意犯规“不当性”辨析

建构论者认为故意犯规违背规则约定构成欺诈;特质论者认为故意犯规增强了体育竞技的精彩度是竞赛的组成部分。从建构论与特质论争议出发,通过阐释故意犯规行为的欺诈性和内在主义的理论分析,故意犯规是种伦理"不当"行为。     

个体应对紧张情境的两种理论述评

本文对目前应对研究中形成的两大理论——特质论和过程论进行了简要综述和评论。作者认为，特质论较好地解释了应对方式选择的内在自我动因，但所坚持的应对效果先验确定的观点不利于解释应对行为的学习和改变；过程论在预见、评价、调整和控制应对方式上可以发挥较大作用，但应对过程的测量具有较大的困难，某些情况下仍然需要借助对稳定人格特征的评估。因此，两种理论有机结合，相互之间取长补短，将是应对研究的正确思路。     

《禅宗思想的形成与发展》评介

近几年来,佛、道、禅均为人们关注的研究热点,尤其是“不立文字,教外别传”的禅宗,由于其在中国思想史上独特的风采,引动了千万人之心,社会上兴起了阵阵“禅宗热”。然而,观览书市上种种谈禅之书,或“禅外说禅”,泛泛而论;或大量翻译日本学者的论禅之书,未触中土禅法特质。如何把禅宗作为一种重要的历史文化现象,放到中外     

目前国内学者关于中国传统、文化的一些主要观点

一什么是中国传统文化的基本特质和核心精神?第一种观点认为,中国传统文化的核心内容是“礼”或“礼治”。具体认识又有两种。一种基本上是以下两方面的分析。一方面指出,礼的内容是等级隶属关系,由礼培育的等级隶属观念,是中国文化之所以绵延数千年的思想原因,其最集中的表现就是维护忠孝的三纲五常。这种隶属关系形成强大的社会关系网,人只有在隶属他人的关系中才有存在的价值。它使个性的压抑达到最大强度,很难有自主意识的萌发。这是“礼”的消极面,另一方     

气论对于中国哲学的重要意义

<正>中国古代的气论思想内容非常广泛,我曾将其概括为"一气涵五理",即"气"概念中包含着哲理、物理、生理、心理和伦理等方面的内容。(参见李存山,2006年)从气论在哲理上的意义而言,它是中国哲学自然观的主要形态。因为中国哲学的一个主要特点是"天人合一"或"推天道以明人事",所以气论与儒家的仁学、道家的道论等等共同构成了中国哲学的基本倾向或特质。本文就此而     

基于知觉论和特质论的信用研究

从知觉论和特质论出发,本文回顾了信用涵义、结构、测量和效能方面的国外研究成果,认为未来的信用研究需要关注过程论的研究思路。     

The relationship between defense mechanisms,trait anxiety and need for approval

The current study investigated the relationship between three personality constructs, defense mechanisms as measured by the DMI (Gleser and Ihilevich, 1969), trait anxiety, and need for approval (nApp). 92 undergraduates completed the DMI, Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene (1970) A-Trait scale and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability [MC-SD] scale. It was found that for females, defenses that turn anger towards others or towards the self were positively related to trait anxiety while defenses such as denial, repression, rationalization and intellectualization were negatively related to trait anxiety. No relations between defenses and A-Trait were found for males. It was also found that the approval motivated subjects reported less A-Trait as compared to low-nApp individuals and preferred to use socially desirable defenses such as repression, denying or reaction formation. Those who scored low on nApp preferred to use defenses which are less socially desirable. Gender differences in the effectiveness and social desirability of the different defenses are discussed.     

Trait worry is associated with difficulties in working memory updating

The current study investigated the effects of trait worry, a subcomponent of trait anxiety, on the process of updating information in working memory (WM). A leading theory on anxiety and executive functions, attentional control theory (ACT), states that anxiety is not related to WM updating in emotionally neutral situations. Previous research, however, has focused almost exclusively on WM span tasks that primarily emphasised storage, rather than the updating of WM representations. Moreover, few studies have directly examined the effects of trait worry. In this study, 116 subjects performed a WM updating task that required the memorisation of short lists of words and the within-trial removal of some of these items from WM. Results indicated that levels of trait worry were not related to word-span performance, but were related to performance on trials that required subjects to effectively update WM. Moreover, these effects were observed only for trait worry, not for levels of anxious arousal or comorbid levels of dysphoria. These results support the hypothesis that trait worry is related to WM updating performance and thereby extend ACT in new directions.     

Why identities fluctuate: variability in traits as a function of situational variations in autonomy support

ABSTRACT Interest in intra-individual variation in trait expression across situations, contexts, and relationships, and the meaning of this variation for personal functioning has grown significantly. In this article we review this literature with an emphasis on (a) appropriate methods for identifying variations in trait expression and (b) the substantive meaning and sources of this variation. Self-determination theory suggests that people will express traits differently as a function of the degree of support for autonomy they experience in any given setting. Accordingly, autonomy support is shown to predict variations in Big Five trait expression and other stable individual differences such as attachment security and dependency. The discussion focuses on methodological issues in the study of variability and on why autonomy support may play a central role in explaining trait variability and its relation to well-being.     

Towards a refined structure of personality traits

In this article we pursue two goals. The first is a further articulation of the dimensionality of the Dutch trait domain. The second is a detailed mapping of the factorial trait structure, one which includes intelligible and proper niches for various nuances of the trait language and for different interpretations of the main factors of personality language. In realizing these goals, we discuss the reliance on theory in structuring and modelling the domain in question, the type of model to be used, and the comprehensiveness versus the economy of domain representation. The advantages and disadvantages of the simple structure model and the circumplex model are commented upon, and a new framework that integrates these two models is presented. The present results provide confirmation of the existence of five major dimensions that cover the trait domain: (I) Extraversion or Surgency, (II) Agreeableness, (III) Conscientiousness, (IV) Emotional Stability, and (V) Intellect or Openness to Experience. The newly developed representational model, revealing a refined structure of personality characteristics, not only clarifies some of the problems faced in interpreting the Big Five factors, but also forms a starting point for applications.     

Situational effects in trait assessment: The FPI,NEOFFI, and EPI questionnaires

While most researchers do agree now that situations may have an effect in the assessment of traits, the consequences have been neglected, so far: if situations affect the assessment of traits we have to take this fact into account in studies on reliability and validity of measurement instruments and their application. In the theoretical part of this article we provide a more formal exposition of this point, introducing the basic concepts of latent state–trait (LST) theory. LST theory and the associated models allow for the estimation of the situational impact on trait measures in non-experimental, correlational studies. In the empirical part, LST theory is applied to three well known trait questionnaires: the Freiburg Personality Inventory, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory and the Eysenck Personality Inventory. It is shown that significant proportions of the variances of the scales of these questionnaires are due to situational effects. The following consequences of this finding are discussed, (i) Instead of the reliability coefficient, the proportion of variance due to the latent trait, the consistency coefficient, should be used for the estimation of confidence intervals for trait scores, (ii) To reduce the situational effects on trait estimates it may be useful to base such an estimate on several occasions, i.e., to aggregate data across occasions. (iii) Reliability and validity studies should not only be based on a sample of persons representative of those to whom the test will be applied; they should also be conducted in situational contexts representative of the intended applications.     

Within-Person Fluctuations of Proactive Behavior: How Affect and Experienced Competence Regulate Work Behavior

This article studies proactive work behavior from a within-person perspective. Building on the broaden-and-build model and the mood-as-information approach, we hypothesized that negative trait affect and positive state affect predict the relative time spent on proactive behavior. Furthermore, based on self-determination theory we argued that persons want to feel competent and that proactive behavior is one way to experience competence. In an experience-sampling study, 52 employees responded to surveys 3 times a day for 5 days. Hierarchical linear modeling confirmed the hypotheses on trait and state affect. Analyses furthermore showed that although a higher level of experienced competence at core task activities was associated with a subsequent increase in time spent on these activities, low experienced competence predicted an increase in time spent on proactive behavior.     

Testing an Adaptationist Theory of Trait Covariation: Relative Bargaining Power as a Common Calibrator of an Interpersonal Syndrome

This article provides the first test of an adaptationist ‘common calibration’ theory to explain the origins of trait covariation, which holds that (i) personality traits are often facultatively calibrated in response to cues that ancestrally predicted the reproductive payoffs of different trait levels and (ii) distinct traits that are calibrated on the basis of common input cues will exhibit consistent patterns of covariation. This theory is applied to explain the covariation within a ‘personality syndrome’ encompassing various interpersonal trait dimensions (e.g. extraversion, emotionality and attachment styles). Specifically, it is hypothesized that these traits are inter‐correlated because each is calibrated in response to relative bargaining power (RBP)—a joint function of one's ability to benefit others and harm others. Path analyses from a correlational study compellingly supported this theoretical model: Objective and self‐perceived measures of RBP‐enhancing phenotypic features (physical attractiveness and physical strength) influenced an internal regulatory variable indexing RBP (i.e. self‐perceived RBP), which in turn had robust effects on each of the focal personality traits. Moreover, in support of the theory's core postulate, controlling for self‐perceived RBP greatly reduced the covariation within the interpersonal syndrome. These novel findings illustrate the promise of an evolutionary psychological approach to elucidating trait covariation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Item response theory and the measurement of clinical change

An instrument's sensitivity to detect individual-level change is an important consideration for both psychometric and clinical researchers. In this article, we develop a cognitive problems measure and evaluate its sensitivity to detect change from an item response theory (IRT) perspective. After illustrating assumption checking and model fit assessment, we detail 4 features of IRT modeling: (a) the scale information curve and its relation to the bandwidth of measurement precision, (b) the scale response curve and how it is used to link the latent trait metric with the raw score metric, (c) content-based versus norm-based score referencing, and (d) the level of measurement of the latent trait scale. We conclude that IRT offers an informative, alternative framework for understanding an instrument's psychometric properties and recommend that IRT analyses be considered prior to investigations of change, growth, or the effectiveness of clinical interventions.     

Emotional Intelligence: Toward a Consensus of Models and Measures

This article outlines the many different ways that emotional intelligence (EI) has been conceptualized, measured, and used from the early antecedents of emotional abilities such as facial expression research to the recent multimedia assessment paradigms. The divide between models describing EI as a character trait versus modeling EI as a form of information processing or knowledge is described, with both kinds of models evaluated based on theory and empirical evidence. It is concluded that the latter type of model, exemplified by the four-branch hierarchical model of EI, is the only logical construct to bear the label ‘EI’. Potential emendations to the way EI is currently conceptualized and measured are discussed, with this review covering emotion recognition assessments, situational judgment tests, and multimedia assessments such as the empathic agent paradigm. The article concludes with a suggested agenda for future research in the EI field.     

Recall and recognition of threatening,pleasant, and neutral words in repressors

Low accessibility of threatening information is a crucial element in the theory of repression. Despite many attempts, no empirical evidence has been found for such an inverse memory bias in normal subjects. An alternative approach is to study repressive processes as an individual difference. Adopting such a trait approach, several studies have shown impaired memory for threatening memories of real‐life episodes in so‐called repressors. Several other studies have yielded evidence of avoidant processing of mildly threatening information in the early stages of information processing in repressors. Thus far, little evidence for a similar avoidant bias in memory has been offered for repressors. To demonstrate the presence of memory deficits for mildly threatening information, we tested recall and cued recognition after a 30 min delay, for (i) threatening, (ii) pleasant, and (iii) neutral words in repressors and non‐repressors. No proof was found for poorer recall and recognition of threatening words in repressors, or for lower numbers of threatening semantic intrusions in these individuals, while the power of the study was adequate. While repression‐related avoidant processing may be present for even mildly threatening stimuli at earlier stages of information processing, the results of the present study indicate that repressed memory may only show up for relatively intense emotional events. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.