Coping with threatened identities: Unemployed people’s self-categorizations

This article presents a theoretical argument to explain the way in which unemployed people react to and cope with threats to their identities that derive from perceptions ofstigma and low self-worth. It is argued here that strategies used by unemployed people to cope with such threats are influenced by whether the individuals categorize themselves as “unemployed” or adopt some other categorization (e.g., housewife, retired coal-miner). It is also proposed that the concept of self-categorization can be framed within Folkman and Lazarus’s (1980, 1985) coping model of distress in order to provide a more general framework for understanding these issues. The study reviews literature about stigma and coping with threatened identities with reference to these integrated frameworks, and concludes with a general model for predicting the way in which unemployed people self-categorize and cope with stigma and low self-esteem. This takes into account the role played by situational and individual factors, and suggests that individuals recategorize themselves in order to cope better during different phases of their unemployment.     

Person-centred coping research

In this concluding article we discuss the three approaches to biographical stress and coping research presented in this issue, under four main headings. The first topic comprises the comparison of the three approaches with regard to their biographical features. In a second part we turn to the issue of coping and examine differences as well as similarities between the coping concept of Hans Thomae, on the one hand and that of Lazarus and Folkman on the other hand. The third and fourth of our discussion points deal with two central topics, that are accentuated in present personality psychology: the person-situation issue and the idiographic-nomothetic debate. With regard to both topics, we discuss the ideas and research findings which Lazarus and Folkman, as well as Thomae are contributing to these issues. We conclude our discussion of biographical approaches to stress and coping by proposing a person-centred approach, that can be regarded as a further development of theoretical conceptualizations contained in the approaches of Lazarus and Thomae.     

The dimensionality of coping among Chinese health care workers

The transactional model defines coping as a process that changes on the basis of the context of an environmental encounter. An instrument used to investigate coping in diverse person-environment interactions is the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WOC; S. Folkman & R. S. Lazarus, 1988). Although evidence exists to support the basic underlying structure of the WOC in Western societies, no research has been conducted on the instrument's dimensionality in non-Western societies. The authors identified 14 factors for the WOC administered to a sample of health care workers in Beijing, China. The 14 factors identified in the present study were similar to the 8 factors identified in the original validation study (S. Folkman, R. S. Lazarus, C. Dunkel-Schetter, A. DeLongis, & R. J. Gruen, 1986), but they were more content specific.     

The Dimensionality of Coping Among Chinese Health Care Workers

Abstract

The transactional model defines coping as a process that changes on the basis of the context of an environmental encounter. An instrument used to investigate coping in diverse person-environment interactions is the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WOC; S. Folkman & R. S. Lazarus, 1988). Although evidence exists to support the basic underlying structure of the WOC in Western societies, no research has been conducted on the instrument's dimensionality in non-Western societies. The authors identified 14 factors for the WOC administered to a sample of health care workers in Beijing, China. The 14 factors identified in the present study were similar to the 8 factors identified in the original validation study (S. Folkman, R. S. Lazarus, C. Dunkel-Schetter, A. DeLongis, & R. J. Gruen, 1986), but they were more content specific.     

Stress and burnout among French elementary school teachers: A transactional approach

Teachers meet increasing difficulties in their work: overwork, students dropping out of the system, the discredit of the profession among users of the educational system. These problems are stressors which have an influence on the vulnerability of teachers and lead to burnout. The transactional model of stress by Lazarus and Folkman [Lazarus, R.S., Folkman, S., 1984. Stress, appraisal and coping, New York, Springer] emphasizes the importance of the activity expended by an individual in order to confront a stressful situation. We administered several questionnaires to 410 French elementary schoolteachers during the first term (T1) in order to evaluate: their sociobiographic characteristics; the frequency of professional problems; perceived self-efficacy; social support; and their coping strategies. The burnout of 259 teachers of the same cohort was evaluated during the third term (T2). The results of this research show the interest of taking into account transactional processes in order to study the effects of professional stress on burnout.     

Émotions et stratégies d’adaptation de prestataires de soins suite à des décès maternels dans le Nord-Kivu

This qualitative study describes the emotional structure and coping strategies associated with maternal death in North Kivu. Based on a heuristic approach, the methodology is based on an iterative process of explicating the experience of maternal death as experienced by the care teams. In conjunction with the transactional model of Lazarus and Folkman, the results focus on four themes: openness to spiritual values, telescoping age identification, use of hygiene strategies and rationalization. The study suggests the establishment of psychological support mechanisms for providers after a maternal death.     

Toward a Multicultural Model of the Stress Process

Stress and coping models are potentially useful frameworks for multicultural counseling and research because of their focus on the effects of social environmental factors on human functioning. This article attempts to expand a “standard” model of the stress process (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) to include a number of culture-relevant dimensions. Cultural factors are discussed that influence each component of the stress model including (a) the types and frequency of events experienced, (b) appraisals of the stressfulness of events, (c) appraisals of available coping resources, (d) selection of coping strategies, and (e) manifestations of adaptational difficulties. Implications of the expanded model for both research and counseling practice are discussed. Los modelos de estrés y la adaptación al estrés tienen la potencia para ser cuadros útiles en la consejería e investigación multicultural por su enfoque sobre los efectos de factores ambientales sociales en la función humana. Este artículo intenta extender un modelo “normal” del proceso de estrés (Lazarus y Folkman, 1984) para incluir un número de dimensiones culturalmente pertinentes. Se discuten los factores culturales que influyen en cada componente del modelo de estrés, incluyendo: los tipos y la frequencia de los eventos experimentados, la apreciación del nivel de estrés de acontacimientos, la apreciación de los recursos de adaptación disponibles, la selección de estrategias de adaptación, y las manifestaciones de dificultades de adaptación. Se discuten las implicaiones del modelo extendido para la investigación y la práctica de consejeria.     

The Influence of Income Level and Ethnicity on Coping Strategies

The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ) by S. Folkman and R. S. Lazarus (1988) has been used widely; however, few studies have evaluated this assessment tool in research concerning populations from different income levels and ethnic backgrounds. The purpose of this study was to compare the endorsement of the 8 coping strategies as outlined by Folkman and Lazarus's original research with Caucasian, middle class participants to the endorsement of coping approaches in a low income, primary care sample. Results suggest that low income individuals report utilizing greater rates of coping strategies overall and specifically employ emotion-focused coping strategies more than Folkman and Lazarus's original sample. Ethnic differences within the present study's low income sample were also examined and suggest that even within this low income sample, African Americans use certain emotion-focused coping strategies significantly more than Caucasian participants.     

Daily Versus Major Life Events as Predictors of Symptom Frequency: A Replication Study

Predictions of physical symptomatology by daily life events and by major life events were compared, replicating and expanding work reported by De-Longis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman, & Lazarus (1982). Analyses of daily, prospective data collected on 79 married men for 90 days demonstrated that daily, undesirable events were better predictors of symptom frequencies than either past, major life events or daily, desirable events. These results, similar to those found by DeLongis et al. (1982), were further explored by examining “healthy” subjects versus subjects with prior medical conditions. Undesirable daily events were a much stronger predictor of physical symptoms in the healthy group than in the prior medical conditions group.     

Daily versus major life events as predictors of symptom frequency: a replication study

Predictions of physical symptomatology by daily life events and by major life events were compared, replicating and expanding work reported by DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman, & Lazarus (1982). Analyses of daily, prospective data collected on 79 married men for 90 days demonstrated that daily, undesirable events were better predictors of symptom frequencies than either past, major life events or daily, desirable events. These results, similar to those found by DeLongis et al. (1982), were further explored by examining "healthy" subjects versus subjects with prior medical conditions. Undesirable daily events were a much stronger predictor of physical symptoms in the healthy group than in the prior medical conditions group.     

DAILY HASSLES AND COPING STRATEGIES OF DUAL-EARNER AND NONDUAL-EARNER WOMEN

Comparisons were made of dual-earner and nondual-earner women's stress and coping strategies. A questionnaire was developed from the Hassles Scale (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981) and the Ways of Coping Checklist (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Dual-earner women reported significantly more hassles than nondual-earner women. However, there were no significant differences on intensity level of these hassles. Several between- and within-group differences on coping strategies were found. Both groups tended to use more problem-focused coping strategies than emotion-focused coping strategies and, contrary to expectations, both groups expressed overall satisfaction with their coping strategies.     

Demographic factors as predictors of coping strategies among police officers

This study examined the effects of demographic factors on coping responses among police officers. A sample of 233 police officers completed the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). The regression analysis showed that the higher the reported educational attainment, the more police officers reported coping which was emotion-focused and seeking social support. The rank of the officer was directly related to reported emotion-focused coping. These results are discussed relative to research on the relations of demographic factors and coping responses among police officers.     

Quality of life and benzodiazepine drug use by community-dwelling elderly: a stress and coping perspective

Framed in Lazarus and Folkman theory of stress and coping, a model of onset of long-term benzodiazepine use among community-dwelling older adults is presented within a perspective of quality of life enhancement. We focus on heightened emotional reactivity, and subsequent effect on cognitive appraisal of life circumstances (loss of control over the event and negative appraisal of personal resources). We examine ensuing coping strategy, namely an increased reliance on both emotion-reduction and problem-solving coping strategies. The effects of benzodiazepine use on quality of life are brought forth. Alternatives to benzodiazepine use are suggested.     

The Moderating Effect of Interaction Avoidance Between Abusive Supervision and Subordinates' Job Promotions

While abusive supervision is shown to have negative stress-related effects on targets, less is known about the factors capable of mitigating these negative effects and their career-related outcomes. In this paper, we drew on the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1986) and the upward mobility theory (Turner, 1960) to explore the moderating effect of subordinates' interaction avoidance between abusive supervision and job promotions. To test this moderating effect, we collected data from 604 full-time employees at three points in time over a 12-month time period in Japan. The findings suggest that interaction avoidance moderates the relationship between abusive supervision and promotions, such that this relationship will be less negative as interaction avoidance increases.     

Travail et épuisement professionnel : le rôle modérateur des traits de la personnalité

This study aims to assess the moderating role of personality traits on the relationship between work conditions and burnout. The stress theories (Lazarus et Folkman, 1984; Marchand, 2004; Pearlin, 1999) argues that the effects of stressors are moderated by the individual perception of stressors, some personality traits may thus moderate the relationship between work stressors and burnout. The main results confirm self-esteem and locus of control moderates the relationship between work conditions and burnout. The results of this study may be useful in some human resource management activities, particularly career management, promotions management and personnel selection.     

The negative event scale: measuring frequency and intensity of adult hassles

This study examined the structure, concurrent validity, and reliability of a hassle measure for middle-aged adults in both event frequency and intensity recordings. The measure included a range of interpersonal day-to-day events and re-examined aspects of the primary appraisal confounding debate between Lazarus and colleagues (Lazarus, Delongis, Folkman, & Gruen, 1985) and Dohrenwend and Shrout (1985). Of the 373 participants, 73% were female, 72% were in paid work, 69% were in permanent relationships and 62% had children. Principal component analyses of separate hassle frequency and intensity scores highlighted components consistent with previous research. There were seven interpersonal and four non-interpersonal subscales associated with negative events with family and friends, work, health, money, and household. The subscales had very good reliability and concurrent validity and there were generally strong correlations (i.e. up .84) between frequency and intensity scores for each subscale. Given some important sampling limitations (e.g. female overrepresentation) the findings show a psychometrically sound hassle scale for adults.     

A Dispositional and Situational Assessment of Children's Coping: Testing Alternative Models of Coping

ABSTRACT Dispositional and situational measures of children's coping were developed using a theoretically based approach. Two studies ( N 1 = 217; N 2 = 303) assessed the psychometric characteristics of these measures in fourth- through sixth-grade children. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a four-factor model of dispositional coping (active, distraction, avoidant, and support seeking) provided a better fit to the data than either the problemversus emotion-focused (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) or passive versus active (Billings & Moos, 1981) coping models. The four-factor model was largely invariant with respect to age and gender. Moderate to high correlations were found between the parallel subscales of the dispositional and situational measures of coping. Although the four factor structures of the dispositional and situational measures were generally similar, factor loadings and correlations between dimensions were not equivalent.     

Personality and Coping Styles in the Prediction of Dropout From Treatment for Cocaine Abuse

This study was designed to distinguish between dropouts and completers of residential therapeutic community treatment for cocaine abuse on the basis of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory II (MCMI-II; Millon,1987) and Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL; Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLoagis, & Gruen, 1986) scales, which measure detached, dependent, and independent personality and coping styles. Dropouts were differentiated from completers in two discriminant functions defined, in part, by scores on scales that tap a fiercely independent orientation with manipulative, exploitive, and confrontive interpersonal features. Also contributing to the discriminant functions identified in this study were scores on scales that measure responsiveness to direction from others associated with strong desire for social approval and ability to establish self-control of emotional and behavioral reactions.     

Re-appraising stress appraisals: The underlying properties of stress in sport

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study is to investigate the underlying properties of athletes’ stressful appraisals. According to Lazarus and Folkman [(1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer] all meaningful situations that are appraised as stressful will include one of eight properties. These properties are: novelty, predictability, event uncertainty, imminence, duration, temporal uncertainty, ambiguity and timing in relation to the life cycle.DesignThis study aimed to examine whether these underlying properties are relevant to the sporting context and if any further properties exist within this context using a qualitative interview approach.MethodsSixteen national level trampolinists took part in interviews which focused on their most stressful competitive experience.ResultsFollowing deductive content analysis all properties were found to have relevance to a sporting domain. Two further properties of Self and Other Comparison and Inadequate Preparation were also revealed which were proposed to be specific to a sporting context.ConclusionsSuggestions are made concerning future research to extend this line of inquiry and our understanding of stress appraisals.