小学三年级句群教学实验研究

探讨在小学三年级句群教学条件下,样例的不同呈现方式与练习方法对形成有关图式及其技能的影响。同时,考察陈述性知识、认知技能(一般程序性知识)和策略相互间的关系及对被试任务操作的影响效果。研究结果表明：(1)在实验班中,同时呈现两个以上样例并加以归纳,再循序渐进地进行变式练习,有利于图式与技能形成以及类比迁移,且中差生获益较大;(2)在被试的任务操作中,陈述性知识主效应非常显著,其次为认知技能,再次为策略,陈述性知识和认知技能之间存在显著交互作用。     

样例多样性和流畅性信念对类别学习判断的影响

目的:通过三个实验考查样例特征、流畅性和信念对类别学习及其元认知判断的影响。方法:实验1采用2(样例特征)×2(测试类型)的组内设计以检验样例特征的作用; 实验2采用2(样例特征)×2(测试类型)×2(流畅性)的组内设计以检验流畅性的作用; 实验3采用2(样例特征)×2(测试类型)×2(流畅性信念)的混合设计以检验信念对类别学习判断的作用。结果表明:样例特征影响学习成绩、类别学习判断和流畅感; 流畅性不会影响类别学习判断; 原理解释能够有效建立“关于流畅性的信念”,且“关于流畅性的信念”对类别学习判断起作用。即样例多样性和流畅性信念对类别学习判断起作用,支持信念假说。     

规则变型推理对远迁移问题解决的促进

为了避免多重变异样例学习和采用题海战术,并能促进规则样例学习的远迁移问题解决,开创出原样例学习后对原型规则做出变型推理的学习方法,以算术应用题的解题样例为原样例学习材料进行了4项实验研究。结果显示：四年级小学生运用该方法可有效促进远迁移问题的解决;其变型推理能力存在数学成绩等级差异;提供问题情境和推理提示能提高部分学生规则变型推理成绩和远迁移测验成绩。实验结果证明,规则变型推理是促进远迁移问题解决的有效方法之一。     

表征变化及其影响因素的微观发生研究

Karmiloff-Smith的表征重述理论认为表征重述是人类获取知识的重要途径,并且表征变化的过程包括程序、元程序和概念化三个阶段。采用微观发生法（包括前测、练习和迁移3个阶段,共8个期间）,以数字分解组合任务为研究材料,探讨了120名小学一、二年级儿童问题解决中的表征变化及所受年龄和练习模式等因素的影响。结果表明,前测中存在发展性差异,即二年级儿童达到概念化阶段的人数显著多于一年级儿童,但前测处于程序阶段的儿童接受5次解题练习过程中以及在近迁移题目上都没有表现出年级差异,而在远迁移题目上二年级儿童的完成情况好于一年级儿童。练习模式对表征变化的影响主要体现在三个方面：（1）从变化的路线看,与简单模式相比,复杂模式更能促进儿童的表征发生变化,而且这时儿童表征变化的路线更丰富,表征变化发生循环的人数比例也更高。（2）从变化的速度看,复杂模式下儿童在插入难题的两次练习期间表征变化比较迅速,其余期间变化较小;简单模式下儿童在第二次和第三次练习期间表征变化比较迅速,随后变化比较平稳。（3）从变化的广度看,练习中所获表征能力（在最后三次练习中达到元程序或概念化阶段）的推广,无论是在近迁移题还是远迁移题上两种练习模式之下的被试没有明显差异;但两组被试在近迁移题上的表现均好于远迁移题     

样例的子目标编码对新问题解决中原理运用的作用研究

运用排列和组合原理,通过三个实验研究了样例解题步骤的编码方式对原理运用的作用.实验1和实验2分别探讨了样例解题步骤的不同编码方式对解决表面概貌变化和表面对应变化的新问题时原理运用的影响;实验3探讨了不同编码条件下原理运用概化的形成.结果表明:用子目标编码样例的解题步骤有利于消除新问题解决中由于表面概貌和表面对应变化带来的消极影响;用子目标编码样例的解题步骤促进了学习者对原理的理解和获得原理的概化图式.     

样例和问题的联结方式对迁移作用的实验研究

研究了样例和问题的联结方式对学习迁移的影响。实验 1探讨了渐减提示法对学习迁移的作用 ;实验 2进一步检验了渐减提示法对诱发学习者进行自我解释的作用 ;实验 3探讨了“渐减提示 +子目标”这种联结样例和问题的方式对迁移的效果。进行重复测量设计的方差分析 ,实验结果表明 :渐减提示法是动态的联结样例和问题解决的有效形式 ,符合认知技能获得的四阶段模型和建构主义学习观的基本要求 ;渐减提示法有助于促进学习者对样例问题进行高质量的自我解释和产生心理预期 ;用“渐减提示 +子目标引导”来联结样例和问题有助于减轻认知负荷 ,有助于产生高质量的自我解释 ,对原理图式的获得有着重要作用     

“解释法”样例对小学生学习新运算规则的促进

为证实“解释法”样例设计的促进作用,实验考察了4年级小学生学习“解释”样例与普通样例、“解释”样例和“解释-标记”与普通样例的迁移效果。结果表明：（1）用“解释”样例学习分数加减运算规则的近迁移成绩明显优于普通样例,但远迁移成绩无显著差异;（2）用“解释-标记”样例学习分数乘除法运算规则的远迁移成绩明显优于“解释”样例和普通样例,但近迁移成绩差异不显著,学习“解释”样例的远迁移效果均明显优于普通样例;（3）学习“解释法”设计的比例运算样例,其远、近迁移成绩均明显优于普通样例的迁移成绩,并受被试先备知识的影响。     

含有新算符的代数运算规则学习的有效样例设计

为了探索含有新算符的代数运算规则学习的有效样例设计方式,分别采用“转换标记法”和“解释法”设计“指-对数转换”运算和对数运算的样例,考察了初中三年级学生代数运算规则样例学习的迁移效果。结果显示：(1)采用“转换标记法”设计的样例可以明显提高“指-对数转换”规则样例学习的迁移效果;(2)采用“解释法”设计的运算样例,能够明显促进“对数运算规则”的样例学习迁移效果,并与被试的基础知识有关。     

影响图式归纳和类比迁移的三因素实验研究

该研究探讨被试的认知风格、源问题结构的清晰度及两个源问题间内容的相似性三者对图式归纳和类比迁移的影响。实验采用2×2×2的三因素完全随机设计。结果显示:(1)源问题图式表征的质量受到被试认知风格和源问题结构的清晰度两个变量的影响;(2)类比迁移的成绩只受到源问题结构清晰度的影响;(3)结构清晰的条件下,两类被试图式表征的质量无明显差异;结构不清晰的条件下,两类被试图式表征的质量出现明显差异。     

规则分类中刺激非规则特征突显条件下的样例效应

用Allan和Brooks的实验范式,采用2（学习轮次：5轮、10轮）×2（项目类型：旧项目、新项目）×2（项目匹配性质：正向匹配、反向匹配）混合实验设计,研究规则分类中非规则特征突显条件下的样例效应。结果发现,在学习5轮的条件下,获得了错误率上的样例效应,在学习5轮和10轮的条件下都没有获得反应时上的样例效应。实验得出样例效应的产生和突显的非规则特征有关的结论。     

Learning Strategies and Transfer in the Domain of Programming

We report two studies involving an intelligent tutoring system for Lisp (the Camegie Mellon University Lisp Tutor). In Experiment 1, we developed a model, based on production system theories of transfer and analogical problem solving, that accounts for effects of instructional examples, the transfer of cognitive skills across programming problems, and practice effects. In Experiment 2, we analyzed protocols collected from subjects as they processed instructional texts and examples before working with the Lisp Tutor and protocols collected after subjects solved each programming problem. The results suggest that the acquisition of cognitive skills is facilitated by high degrees of metacognition, which includes higher degrees of monitoring states of knowledge, more self-generated explanation goals and strategies, and greater attention to the instructional structure. Improvement in skill acquisition is also strongly related to the generation of explanations connecting the example material to the abstract terms introduced in the text, the generation of explanations that focus on the novel concepts, and spending more time in planning diminishing returns. Finally, reflection on problem solutions that focus on understanding the abstractions underlying programs or that focus on understanding how programs work seems to be related to improved learning.     

The efficiency of multimedia learning into old age

Background: On the basis of a multimodal model of working memory, cognitive load theory predicts that a multimedia‐based instructional format leads to a better acquisition of complex subject matter than a purely visual instructional format. Aims: This study investigated the extent to which age and instructional format had an impact on training efficiency among both young and old adults. It was hypothesised that studying worked examples that are presented as a narrated animation (multimedia condition) is a more efficient means of complex skill training than studying visually presented worked examples (unimodal condition) and solving conventional problems. Furthermore, it was hypothesised that multimedia‐based worked examples are especially helpful for elderly learners, who have to deal with a general decline of working‐memory resources, because they address both mode‐specific working‐memory stores. Sample: The sample consisted of 60 young (mean age = 15.98 years) and 60 old adults (mean age = 64.48 years). Methods: Participants of both age groups were trained in either a conventional, a unimodal, or a multimedia condition. Subsequently, they had to solve a series of test problems. Dependent variables were perceived cognitive load during the training, performance on the test, and efficiency in terms of the ratio between these two variables. Results: Results showed that for both age groups multimedia‐based worked examples were more efficient than the other training formats in that less cognitive load led to at least an equal performance level. Conclusion: Although no difference in the beneficial effect of multimedia learning was found between the age groups, multimedia‐based instructions seem promising for the elderly.     

The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra

The knowledge required to solve algebra manipulation problems and procedures designed to hasten knowledge acquisition were studied in a series of five experiments. It was hypothesized that, as occurs in other domains, algebra problem-solving skill requires a large number of schemas and that schema acquisition is retarded by conventional problem-solving search techniques. Experiment 1, using Year 9, Year 11, and university mathematics students, found that the more experienced students had a better cognitive representation of algebraic equations than less experienced students as measured by their ability to (a) recall equations, and (b) distinguish between perceptually similar equations on the basis of solution mode. Experiments 2 through 5 studied the use of worked examples as a means of facilitating the acquisition of knowledge needed for effective problem solving. It was found that not only did worked examples, as expected, require considerably less time to process than conventional problems, but that subsequent problems similar to the initial ones also were solved more rapidly. Furthermore, decreased solution time was accompanied by a decrease in the number of mathematical errors. Both of these findings were specific to problems identical in structure to the initial ones. It was concluded that for novice problem solvers, general algebra rules are reflected in only a limited number of schemas. Abstraction of general rules from schemas may occur only with considerable practice and exposure to a wider range of schemas.     

Predicting individual differences in complex skill acquisition: dynamics of ability determinants.

Substantial controversy exists about ability determinants of individual differences in performance during and subsequent to skill acquisition. This investigation addresses the controversy. An information-processing examination of ability-performance relations during complex task acquisition is described. Included are ability testing (including general, reasoning, spatial, perceptual speed, and perceptual/psychomotor abilities) and skill acquisition over practice on the terminal radar approach controller simulation. Results validate and extend Ackerman's (1988) theory of cognitive ability determinants of individual differences in skill acquisition. Benefits of ability component and task component analyses over global analyses of ability-skill relations are demonstrated. Implications are discussed for selection instruments to predict air traffic controller success and for other tasks with inconsistent information-processing demands.     

Teaching dancercise to persons who are mentally handicapped: Programming transfer of stimulus control to a community setting

This study demonstrated procedures to promote the acquisition and transfer of stimulus control of an age-appropriate exercise skill. Three young adults diagnosed as mentally handicapped in a residential setting were taught a commercial dancercise routine during individual training sessions using a package of instructional procedures. A combination of a multiple baseline across subjects and a multiple baseline across response groups design showed that skill acquisition occurred only after each subject received training, and that performance did not generalize across exercise response groups. Training progressively incorporated more participants, new teachers, and new settings. Ultimately, subjects performed in a community dancercise class attended by 100 nonhandicapped persons.     

A Test of the Testing Effect: Acquiring Problem‐Solving Skills From Worked Examples

The “testing effect” refers to the finding that after an initial study opportunity, testing is more effective for long‐term retention than restudying. The testing effect seems robust and is a finding from the field of cognitive science that has important implications for education. However, it is unclear whether this effect also applies to the acquisition of problem‐solving skills, which is important to establish given the key role problem solving plays in, for instance, math and science education. Worked examples are an effective and efficient way of acquiring problem‐solving skills. Forty students either only studied worked examples (SSSS) or engaged in testing after studying an example by solving an isomorphic problem (STST). Surprisingly, results showed equal performance in both conditions on an immediate retention test after 5 min, but the SSSS condition outperformed the STST condition on a delayed retention test after 1 week. These findings suggest the testing effect might not apply to acquiring problem‐solving skills from worked examples.     

Effects of self‐explanation as a metacognitive strategy for solving mathematical word problems1

Abstract: This study examined how a metacognitive strategy known as self‐explanation influences word problem solving in elementary school children. Participants were 79 sixth‐graders. They were assigned to one of three groups: the self‐explanation group, the self‐learning group, or the control group. Students in each group performed a ratio word problem test and a transfer test. The results showed that students in the self‐explanation group outperformed students in the other two groups on both the ratio word problem test and on the transfer test. In addition, high explainers who generated more self‐explanations relating to deep understanding of worked‐out examples outperformed low explainers on both ratio word problem and transfer tests. The self‐explanation effect is discussed.     

工作记忆训练及对数学能力的迁移作用

工作记忆缺陷会影响个体数学能力发展。通过记忆策略、广度、刷新、转换等功能的工作记忆训练,可以改善个体认知功能。然而,工作记忆训练对个体的阅读、数学、流体智力等方面的远迁移效果并不一致。研究表明,工作记忆训练可以改善数感、视觉空间能力、推理能力等数学一般技能;也会通过改善语音工作记忆以及空间能力促进数学计算能力,或者通过改善中央执行系统,提升数学问题表征、模式识别、解题迁移、策略选择等复杂的过程,从而促进数学问题解决能力。因此,区分不同数学任务的认知过程,可以获得工作记忆训练对数学能力迁移效果的进一步证据。今后,神经影像学的证据或许也是未来工作记忆训练对数学能力提高的又一佐证。     

工作记忆训练及对数学能力的迁移作用

工作记忆缺陷会影响个体数学能力发展。通过记忆策略、广度、刷新、转换等功能的工作记忆训练,可以改善个体认知功能。然而,工作记忆训练对个体的阅读、数学、流体智力等方面的远迁移效果并不一致。研究表明,工作记忆训练可以改善数感、视觉空间能力、推理能力等数学一般技能;也会通过改善语音工作记忆以及空间能力促进数学计算能力,或者通过改善中央执行系统,提升数学问题表征、模式识别、解题迁移、策略选择等复杂的过程,从而促进数学问题解决能力。因此,区分不同数学任务的认知过程,可以获得工作记忆训练对数学能力迁移效果的进一步证据。今后,神经影像学的证据或许也是未来工作记忆训练对数学能力提高的又一佐证。