Motivation and goal orientation in vulnerability to depression

Depression may be related to motivational systems that govern approach and avoidance behaviour such as temperament and goal orientation. Using a remitted depression design we found that previously depressed and never-depressed individuals did not differ on number of approach goals generated, degree of goal commitment or extent of planning to reach goals. However, previously depressed individuals generated more avoidance goals indicating that the tendency to set avoidance goals may be a trait-like vulnerability to depression. Previously depressed individuals also reported higher activation of the behavioural approach system (BAS) raising the possibility that this system is energising approach behaviour in the service of avoiding aversive consequences.     

Motivation through conscious goal setting

The article describes what has been found during 30 years of research by the author and others on the relationship between conscious performance goals and performance on work tasks. This approach is contrasted with previous approaches to motivation theory which stressed physiological, external or subconscious causes of action. The basic contents of goal setting theory are summarized in terms of 14 categories of findings. An applied example is provided.     

Adult attachment style and vulnerability to depression

The present study examined the role of adult attachment styles in differentiating ‘depressed’ and ‘non-depressed’ college students, and the association between attachment styles and the depressive personality vulnerabilities, sociotropy and autonomy. High scores on the fearful and, to a lesser extent, preoccupied attachment scales were associated with higher levels of depression, highlighting negative self-representation as a key factor in depression. While the sociotropy vulnerability construct correlated exclusively with the preoccupied attachment scale, correlations for the autonomy construct were more complex: as predicted, fearful attachment correlated with all three autonomy subscales while dismissive attachment correlated with the defensive-separation and control subscales, but not with the self-criticism subscale. With an emphasis on negative self-representation, preoccupied attachment also correlated with the self-criticism subscale. The results suggest that fearful attachment is consistent with autonomous vulnerability and preoccupied attachment with sociotropic vulnerability. Self-criticism, a component of both fearful and preoccupied attachment, is highlighted as a strong depressive vulnerability. Dismissive attachment, not involving the self-critical component, does not appear to be associated with depressive predisposition, despite involving self-reliance and avoidance of intimacy.     

Self-regulation: from goal orientation to job performance

The authors investigated the effects on job performance of 3 forms of goal orientation and 4 self-regulation (SR) tactics. In a longitudinal field study with salespeople, learning and performance-prove goal orientation predicted subsequent sales performance, whereas performance-avoid goal orientation negatively predicted sales performance. The SR tactics functioned as mediating variables between learning and performance-prove goal orientations and performance. Social competence and proactive behavior directly and positively predicted sales performance, and emotional control negatively predicted performance.     

Minimal and maximal goal orientation and reactions to norm violations

Violations of social norms can either be evaluated in an absolute or in a gradual fashion depending on whether group goals are represented as minimal or maximal goals. Recent research has shown that absolute versus gradual deviations lead to increased levels of demanded punishment and inclination to exclude the deviant from the respective moral community. In this article, we investigate whether individual differences in orientation towards setting goals in either minimal or maximal terms predict reactions to norm violation. In three studies we found that a dominant minimal goal orientation (MIN) relative to maximal goal orientation (MAX) increased punishment inclinations and social exclusion tendencies towards norm violators. These effects were mediated by affective reaction and proved to be unique goal orientation effects when possible effects of need for closure, intolerance of ambiguity and regulatory focus were controlled for. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression in never depressed subjects

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether dysfunctional cognitions could be measured in never-depressed individuals after a sad mood prime, and if these dysfunctional cognitions would predict future depression. Subjects were first screened for current or past depression. Never-depressed subjects were randomly assigned to a prime or no-prime condition and completed the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale. After one month, subjects completed the Beck Depression Inventory. The mood induction was successful in producing a sad mood, but had no effect on accessibility of dysfunctional cognition. Dysfunctional cognitions did predict depressive symptoms one month later, for the women in the sample, but not the men. These results were actually stronger for the unprimed subjects. The results provide some support for the cognitive diathesis-stress model, and suggest that cognitive vulnerability to depression may exist prior to a clinically significant depressive episode. However, mood priming does not appear to be a useful strategy with never-depressed subjects.     

Cathectic orientation, goal setting and mood

Investigated the reliability and validity of a new verbal cathexis test, based on objectively scored achievement data. Criteria were based on interviews about goal orientations and mood ratings, performed three times a day for a week. Goals were scored analogously with the cathexis test, viz. in the three dimensions hetero-homo, active-passive, and positive-negative. Average mood scores and mood variabilities were estimated. The Oedipal and combined cathexis adjustment indices correlated with goal ratings. Moods correlated with cathectic balance indices. Strong correlations were found to exist between average moods and goal ratings in both active-passive and positive-negative dimensions, as well as sex differences in mood variability and Oedipal orientation as measured by the cathexis test.     

Self-esteem uncertainty and depression vulnerability

Previous research has typically failed to show a difference between the self-esteem ratings of persons who are at-risk for depression and those who are not. Despite these null findings, it is possible that problems with self-esteem do precede depression but are masked by thought suppression. The present research investigated the possibility that at-risk individuals' relatively positive self-appraisals belie uncertainty about the self that is related to high levels of thought suppression and reassurance seeking. To test this idea, participants completed Rosenberg's (1965) Self-Esteem Scale and immediately reported certainty of their responses. Participants then completed measures of excessive-reassurance seeking and chronic thought suppression. Participants also reported past and present experiences with depression. The results indicated that at-risk individuals did not differ from never-depressed individuals in their reported levels of trait self-esteem. However, at-risk individuals were more uncertain about their beliefs than were never-depressed individuals. Moreover, this uncertainty was associated with high levels of thought suppression and excessive reassurance seeking.     

Cognitive and serotonergic vulnerability to depression: convergent findings

Cognitive reactivity (CR) is a psychological vulnerability marker of depression, whereas response to acute tryptophan depletion (ATD; a serotonergic challenge procedure) is a biological vulnerability marker. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between these markers. Thirty-nine remitted depressed patients participated in 2 ATD sessions in a double-blind crossover design. CR, assessed prior to the ATD sessions, predicted depressive response to high-dose ATD. CR also diminished the effects of 2 known predictors of ATD response: gender and residual symptoms. Neuroticism and behavioral inhibition were unrelated to ATD response. CR is associated with an increased sensitivity to reductions of serotonin concentrations. These findings present a small step toward unifying cognitive and neurobiological theories of depression.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression: a taxometric analysis

Although there is increasing support for the hypothesis that negative cognitive styles contribute vulnerability to depression, it remains unclear how best to conceptualize the heterogeneity in cognitive vulnerability to depression. Specifically, does this heterogeneity reflect quantitative or qualitative differences among individuals? The goal of this study was to address this question by examining whether the underlying structure of cognitive vulnerability to depression is best conceptualized as dimensional or categorical. Taxometric analyses provided consistent support for the dimensional nature of negative cognitive styles. It appears, therefore, that cognitive vulnerability to depression is best conceptualized as a dimensional construct, present to a greater or lesser extent in all individuals. Despite this, the strength of the relationship between negative cognitive styles and depressive symptoms does appear to vary as a function of where along the cognitive style continuum one falls.     

Extraversion and performance approach goal orientation: An integrative approach to personality

Research shows that extraversion is unrelated to performance approach goal orientation, both at the trait- and the state-level. However, since previous studies have either focused on the trait- or the state-level, such a conclusion may be premature. Building upon the idea that acting against one’s trait consumes self-control resources, we reason that within-person deviations from one’s level of trait extraversion might negatively relate to performance approach goal orientation. Using experience sampling data from 47 employees across 10 days (N = 307), we found that deviations from one’s trait extraversion levels are associated with lower levels of performance approach goal orientation. These findings suggest that an integrative approach to personality allows to better understanding of the relationship between extraversion and performance approach goal orientation.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression in individuals with borderline personality disorder

The goal of the current study was to examine whether individuals with comorbid Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) exhibit greater severity of depressive symptoms than (1) individuals with MDD without BPD and (2) individuals with neither MDD nor BPD. One hundred and forty-one individuals participated in a semi-structured clinical interview assessing MDD and BPD. They also completed measures assessing depressive symptoms, depressogenic attributional style, hopelessness, self-esteem, rumination, and dysfunctional attitudes. In line with hypotheses, individuals with BPD and MDD exhibited higher levels of depressive symptoms and cognitive vulnerability than individuals in the other two groups. In addition, after controlling for the effects of cognitive vulnerability, the effect of group membership on depressive symptoms was reduced, suggesting that the increased severity of depressive symptoms experienced by those with BPD is partially due to their possessing higher levels of cognitive vulnerability to depression.     

Women and vulnerability to depression: some personality and clinical factors

The purpose of this study is to explore the role of sex differences and personality in vulnerability to depression. Sex differences in personality and some clinical variables are described. We also assess the value of the variables that revealed significant sex differences as predictors of vulnerability to depression. In a group of adult participants (N = 112), 50% males and 50% females (mean age = 41.30; SD = 15.09; range 17-67), we studied sex differences in the three-factor personality model, using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Form A (EPQ-A; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975), and in the Five-Factor Personality Model, with the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985). The following clinical scales were used: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979), the Schizotypy Questionnaire (STQ; Claridge & Broks, 1984; Spanish version, Carrillo & Rojo, 1999), the THARL Scales (Dua, 1989, 1990; Spanish version, Dua & Carrillo, 1994) and the Adjustment Inventory (Bell, 1937; Spanish version, Cerdá, 1980). Subsequently, simple linear regression analysis, with BDI scores as criterion, were performed to estimate the value of the variables as predictors of vulnerability to depression. The results indicate that a series of personality variables cause women to be more vulnerable to depression than men and that these variables could be explained by a negative emotion main factor. Results are discussed within the framework of the psychological behaviorism theory of depression.     

An experimental investigation of the cognitive vulnerability to depression

The present study employed an experimental design, to examine the role of metacognitive processing in the prevention of relapse to depression. Eighty remitted depressed participants were randomly allocated to receive training in the metacognitive style of rumination, distraction, acceptance or no training control prior to a negative mood induction. Rumination prolonged the intensity of the negative mood consistent with no training, whereas both distraction and acceptance reduced the intensity of the negative mood. Changes in attitudes were only found in the acceptance condition, as participants in this condition reduced negative attitudes towards negative experiences. These results are consistent with information processing theory, and imply that acceptance-based preventative interventions may operate by both reducing the intensity of sad moods and altering one's attitudes towards temporary moments of sadness.     

Examining the relationship between athletes' achievement goal orientation and ability to employ imagery

ObjectiveImagery ability may be cognitively regulated by motivational states, thus it is important to determine the relationship between goal orientations and imagery ability. Design/Method: Participants were 272 male and female athletes, representing nine sports. Goal orientations and cognitive and motivational imagery abilities were assessed via questionnaires. Task and ego goal orientations were examined via a two-step cluster analysis procedure, resulting in the identification of four goal orientation clusters. Separate multivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in cognitive imagery ability and motivational imagery ability for the clusters, with gender and sport type entered as covariates. Results: For cognitive imagery ability, gender had a significant effect for athletes with low task/low ego orientation; female athletes rated their internal imagery perspective as clearer and more vivid. Regarding motivational imagery ability, when sport type was controlled for, cluster membership demonstrated a significant multivariate effect. Goal orientations have a relationship with motivational imagery ability but this same relationship was not evident with cognitive imagery ability. Athletes with high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations scored significantly higher on their ability to feel emotions and their ease of generating motivational general-mastery images compared to athletes with low task/high ego or low task/low ego orientations. No differences between goal orientation clusters were found for motivational general-arousal imagery ability. Conclusion: Athletes who have a high task orientation are very motivated and have an easy time forming mastery images and a high ability to experience the emotion of these images.     

Diversity in goal orientation, team reflexivity, and team performance

Although recent research highlights the role of team member goal orientation in team functioning, research has neglected the effects of diversity in goal orientation. In a laboratory study with groups working on a problem-solving task, we show that diversity in learning and performance orientation are related to decreased group performance. Moreover, we find that the effect of diversity in learning orientation is mediated by group information elaboration and the effect of diversity in performance orientation by group efficiency. In addition, we demonstrate that team reflexivity can counteract the negative effects of diversity in goal orientation. These results suggest that models of goal orientation in groups should incorporate the effects of diversity in goal orientation.     

Cross-lagged relationships between career aspirations and goal orientation in early adolescents

We surveyed 217 students (145 girls; average age = 14.6 years) on two occasions, twelve months apart, on measures of career aspirations (job aspirations, job expectations, educational aspirations) and goal orientation (learning, performance-prove, performance-avoid), and tested the causal relationship between goal orientation and aspirations. We assessed five plausible cross-lagged models (a baseline model testing stability and synchronous effects only, a standard causal model with added cross-lagged paths from goal orientation at T1 to the outcome variables at T2, a reverse-causation model, a reciprocal-causation model, and a model of best fit). We found significant, synchronous associations at T1 and T2 between goal orientation and career aspiration, significant stability coefficients for all variables, and support for a standard causal model, with changes in performance-prove and performance-avoid orientations, but not learning orientation, associated with changes in career aspirations over time. We discuss the outcomes in relation to theory and the implications for practitioners.     

Validation of a Chinese achievement goal orientation questionnaire

Background . The mixed findings of previous studies on the nature and effects of performance goals have led to a call for re‐examination of the dichotomous framework of achievement goal orientation theory. While the call for a revised achievement goal orientation theory has received considerable discussion in Western studies, it is not clear whether the revised theory can also be applied in other ethnic and cultural contexts. Aims . Our aim was to validate the Chinese version of Elliot and Church's (1007) Goal Orientation Questionnaire and to initially test the revised goal orientation theory in the context of Chinese students in Hong Kong. Sample . A total of 270 Chinese students (137 boys and 133 girls) from a primary and secondary school in Hong Kong participated in Study 1. Study 2 involved a total of 9,440 students (5,420 boys and 4,020 girls) from 10 primary and 18 secondary schools in Hong Kong. Method . Participants in Study 1 completed a Chinese Goal Orientation Questionnaire (CGOQ) measuring three types of goal orientation. Exploratory factor analysis, item–total correlation, and reliability analyses were undertaken to assess the psychometric quality of the CGOQ. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis was used to provide further validation for the revised questionnaire. The relationships among different goal orientations and that with students' perceived classroom environment and self‐efficacy were also explored using structural equation modelling. Results . Findings of exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 and confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 supported the proposed factor structure of the CGOQ. All the subscales in the questionnaire also showed good internal consistency reliabilities. The construct validity of the CGOQ was supported by its significant relationship with criterion measures. While most of the relationships between the three types of goal orientation and the learning‐related variables measured in our study were consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were different from previous studies. Conclusion . Our findings generally supported the trichotomous framework of the revised goal orientation theory with Chinese students in Hong Kong. Consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, our findings indicated that both mastery and performance‐approach goals had positive impacts on students' learning. However, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were contradictory to the conceptualization of performance‐avoidance goals in the revised theory. Cultural and social factors affecting Hong Kong students' goal orientations are discussed.