“I feel better but I don't know why”: The psychology of implicit emotion regulation

Although emotion regulation has traditionally been conceived as a deliberative process, there is growing evidence that many emotion-regulation processes operate at implicit levels. This special issue of Cognition and Emotion showcases recent advances in theorising and empirical research on implicit emotion regulation. Implicit emotion regulation can be broadly defined as any process that operates without the need for conscious supervision or explicit intentions, and aims at modifying the quality, intensity, or duration of an emotional response. Implicit emotion regulation is likely to be pervasive in everyday life and may contribute considerably to the effectiveness of emotion regulation. Research in this area has developed several valid methods for measuring and manipulating implicit emotion. The contributions to this special issue highlight the significance of implicit emotion regulation in psychological adaptation, goal-directed behaviour, interpersonal behaviour, personality functioning, and mental health.     

An implicit measure of anti-gay attitudes: Prospective associations with emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress

Members of stigmatized groups are at increased risk for mental health problems, and recent research has suggested that emotion dysregulation may be one mechanism explaining the stigma-distress association. However, little is known regarding characteristics that predict vulnerabilities to emotion dysregulation and subsequent distress. We examined whether anti-gay attitudes would predict poorer emotion regulation and greater psychological distress in 31 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) respondents. Respondents completed implicit and explicit attitude measures at baseline, and participated in an experience sampling study examining stigma-related stressors, emotion regulation strategies, and mood over the course of ten days. Implicit and explicit attitude measures were not correlated. LGB respondents with greater implicit anti-gay attitudes engaged in significantly more rumination and suppression and reported more psychological distress. Rumination fully mediated the prospective association between implicit prejudicial attitudes and psychological distress, and suppression was a marginally significant mediator.     

中国情绪调节词语库的初步编制与试用

使用具有情绪调节含义的词语启动某种调节策略, 是实现情绪调节目标的重要方法。然而, 目前国内外尚缺乏标准化的情绪调节词语库, 这可能导致所选词语与目标策略不匹配以及不同实验室研究结果缺乏可比性等问题。为此, 我们对多种情绪调节词语进行筛选、分类和评定, 建立了一个标准化的情绪调节词语库, 并通过实验验证其效用。首先, 对情绪调节词语与多种情绪调节策略的相关程度进行评定; 根据结果对词语进行筛选和分类, 建立词语库, 并进一步对词语属性进行评定。其次, 使用句子整理范式, 检验词语库中的词语所诱发的内隐情绪调节策略对负性情绪的调节作用。结果显示：(1) 149个情绪调节词汇纳入词语库中, 可以较好地反映5种情绪调节目标(接受、注意分散、认知重评、表达抑制和表情宣泄)与中性目标; 词语库具有较好的信度与内部一致性。(2)内隐认知重评、表达抑制策略调节了负性情绪效价和唤醒度, 内隐注意分散策略降低了负性情绪唤醒度。这说明词语库可靠性较高, 其中材料可用于情绪调节目标的实现。     

Implicit theories of emotion shape regulation of negative affect

Implicit theories of emotion—assumptions about whether emotions are fixed (entity theory) or malleable (incremental theory)—have previously been shown to influence affective outcomes over time. We examined whether implicit theories of emotion also relate to the immediate regulation of negative affect. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that the more students endorsed an entity theory of emotion, the more discomfort they reported while watching an aversive movie clip, the more they avoided affective stimuli in this movie clip, the more negative affect they reported after the clip, and the less likely they were to watch the same clip again to learn about its ending. These findings suggest that implicit theories of emotion might produce poor affective outcomes immediately as well as over time. They also offer insight into why some people avoid negative affect while others confront it.     

Implicit interpretation biases affect emotional vulnerability: A training study

Cognitive theories of emotion propose that the interpretation of emotion-eliciting situations crucially shapes affective responses. Implicit or automatic biases in these interpretations may hinder emotion regulation and thereby increase risk for the onset and maintenance of psychological disorders. In this study, participants were randomly assigned to a positive or negative interpretation bias training using ambiguous social scenarios. After the completion of the training, a stress task was administered and changes in positive and negative affect and self-esteem were assessed. The results demonstrate that the interpretation bias training was successful in that participants exhibited a tendency to interpret novel scenarios in accordance with their training condition. Importantly, the positive training condition also had a protective effect on self-esteem. Participants in this condition did not exhibit a decrease in self-esteem after the stress task, whereas participants in the negative condition did. These results demonstrate that implicit cognitive biases can be trained and that this training affects self-esteem. Implications of these findings for research on psychopathology and emotion regulation are discussed.     

Implicit interpretation biases affect emotional vulnerability: a training study

Cognitive theories of emotion propose that the interpretation of emotion-eliciting situations crucially shapes affective responses. Implicit or automatic biases in these interpretations may hinder emotion regulation and thereby increase risk for the onset and maintenance of psychological disorders. In this study, participants were randomly assigned to a positive or negative interpretation bias training using ambiguous social scenarios. After the completion of the training, a stress task was administered and changes in positive and negative affect and self-esteem were assessed. The results demonstrate that the interpretation bias training was successful in that participants exhibited a tendency to interpret novel scenarios in accordance with their training condition. Importantly, the positive training condition also had a protective effect on self-esteem. Participants in this condition did not exhibit a decrease in self-esteem after the stress task, whereas participants in the negative condition did. These results demonstrate that implicit cognitive biases can be trained and that this training affects self-esteem. Implications of these findings for research on psychopathology and emotion regulation are discussed.     

高善良特质在情绪调节行动控制中的内隐优势

基于善良特质在中国人人格修养中的重要价值, 本研究以情绪调节的行动控制理论为模型参照, 设计了三项行为实验检验善良特质的导向性与内隐情绪调节的关系。研究1采用Stroop任务, 比较高低善良被试判断人际关系词颜色时是否受到色词内容的干扰, 结果发现, 高(vs.低)善良被试对人际关系积极词更敏感; 研究2采用情绪调节内隐联想测验任务比较高低善良被试的情绪调节内隐态度差异, 结果发现高(vs.低)善良被试更倾向于采用控制型情绪调节方式调节情绪; 研究3在诱发被试负性情绪条件下, 采用面孔表情视觉搜索任务间接考察高低善良被试在内隐情绪修复效果上的差异, 结果显示高(vs.低)善良被试搜索愤怒背景下高兴面孔的速度更快。三项实验结果一致地表明, 高善良特质利他重感情的行动目的性在情绪调节的行动控制中具有内隐优势, 对积极的心理健康起促进作用。     

心理疾病内隐污名：来自单类内隐联想测验的证据

以61名大学生为被试,采用三个独立的单类内隐联想测验（SC-IAT）考察心理疾病内隐污名的构成及其内隐效应。结果发现：（1）在认知评价、情感反应、行为倾向及其三者合并的4个SC-IATs中,被试在相容任务上的反应时均显著快于不相容任务;（2）总的SC-IAT和三个独立SC-IAT的内隐效应显著;（3）65.27%的被试的内隐效应值大于0,表现出对心理疾病患者负面的内隐态度;（4）研究采用的心理疾病内隐污名SC-IAT具有较好的信、效度指标。研究表明,被试倾向于将心理疾病与消极词联结在一起,心理疾病污名的内隐效应显著;心理疾病内隐污名包括自动化的负面认知、消极情感反应和歧视倾向。     

Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a dual-process framework

It is widely acknowledged that emotions can be regulated in an astonishing variety of ways. Most research to date has focused on explicit (effortful) forms of emotion regulation. However, there is growing research interest in implicit (automatic) forms of emotion regulation. To organise emerging findings, we present a dual-process framework that integrates explicit and implicit forms of emotion regulation, and argue that both forms of regulation are necessary for well-being. In the first section of this review, we provide a broad overview of the construct of emotion regulation, with an emphasis on explicit and implicit processes. In the second section, we focus on explicit emotion regulation, considering both neural mechanisms that are associated with these processes and their experiential and physiological consequences. In the third section, we turn to several forms of implicit emotion regulation, and integrate the burgeoning literature in this area. We conclude by outlining open questions and areas for future research.     

Using the Implicit Association Test to investigate attitude-behaviour consistency for stigmatised behaviour

To consciously bolster behaviour that is disapproved by others (i.e., stigmatised behaviour) people may hold and report a favourable attitude toward the behaviour. However, achieving such bolstering outside awareness may be more difficult. Explicit attitudes were measured with self-report measures, and the Implicit Association Test was used to assess implicit attitudes toward behaviour held by stigmatised actors (smokers) and nonstigmatised actors (vegetarians and omnivores). Smokers' showed greater attitude-behaviour consistency in their explicit attitudes toward smoking that in their implicit attitudes. By contrast, vegetarians and omnivores showed attitude-behaviour-consistency at both implicit and explicit levels. Smokers' implicit negative attitudes toward smoking may reflect its status as a stigmatised behaviour, or its addictive nature.     

Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework

It is widely acknowledged that emotions can be regulated in an astonishing variety of ways. Most research to date has focused on explicit (effortful) forms of emotion regulation. However, there is growing research interest in implicit (automatic) forms of emotion regulation. To organise emerging findings, we present a dual-process framework that integrates explicit and implicit forms of emotion regulation, and argue that both forms of regulation are necessary for well-being. In the first section of this review, we provide a broad overview of the construct of emotion regulation, with an emphasis on explicit and implicit processes. In the second section, we focus on explicit emotion regulation, considering both neural mechanisms that are associated with these processes and their experiential and physiological consequences. In the third section, we turn to several forms of implicit emotion regulation, and integrate the burgeoning literature in this area. We conclude by outlining open questions and areas for future research.     

Motives and health-related behaviour: incremental prediction by implicit motives

The study assessed whether implicit motives, which operate largely outside of conscious awareness, can provide any incremental prediction of health-related behaviour over that provided by explicit motives. In a cross-sectional survey study, 251 young adults completed measures of sun exposure behaviour, sun protection behaviour and risk-related sexual behaviour, participatory motives for these behaviours, life goals (representing explicit dispositional motives), and the Single Category Implicit Association Test adapted to measure implicit motives. Analysis was by structural equation modelling. Power life goal (the goal of asserting oneself and seeking social status) predicted sun exposure behaviour and risk-related sexual behaviour. Altruism life goal (acting for the welfare of others) predicted sun protection behaviour and inversely predicted risk-related sexual behaviour. These effects of life goals were mediated by participatory motives. Implicit dispositional achievement motive (the largely unconscious need to succeed at challenging tasks) inversely predicted sun exposure behaviour, this effect being mediated by a reduction in appearance-related participatory motive for sun exposure. Implicit dispositional achievement motive also inversely predicted risk-related sexual behaviour, this effect being direct. It is concluded that implicit dispositional motives can provide some incremental prediction of health-related behaviour. Possibilities for further research, including the experimental manipulation of motive engagement, are discussed.     

Implicit prejudice and stereotyping: how automatic are they? Introduction to the special section.

This special issue of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cogniition addresses issues of the measurement and the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. The findings raise fundamental questions about the assumptions underlying the assessment of implicit prejudice, particularly with regard to the widely used Implicit Association Test and the assumption of extant models of prejudice and stereotyping that implicit biases are automatically and invariantly activated when perceivers come in contact with members of stigmatized groups. Several of the articles show that contextual manipulations produce reductions in implicit manifestations of prejudice and stereotyping. The articles in this issue, in challenging conventional wisdom, are thought provoking and should be generative in the field's ongoing efforts to understand the role of implicit (and explicit) processes involved in prejudice and stereotyping.     

基于反应时的人格内隐测量及其方法学的思考

人格测量的热点已经转向内隐层面,以反应时为基础的内隐人格测量方法不断推陈出新,如多因素特质内隐联结测验、个人化内隐联结测验、内隐联结程序、单目标词内隐联结测验等,它们从不同侧面丰富了内隐人格测量的方法,深化了内隐人格的理论建构。但新的问题也不断出现,如内隐测量的表征是无意识的吗？内隐测量能避免社会赞许性等动机的影响吗？内隐测量的表征是高度稳定的吗？内隐测量是过程纯净的吗？内隐人格测量可以防止作伪吗？文章回顾了内隐人格测量的相关理论及有关的研究,对这些问题进行了初步的思考     

Investigating the predictive validity of implicit and explicit measures of motivation on condom use, physical activity and healthy eating

The literature on health-related behaviours and motivation is replete with research involving explicit processes and their relations with intentions and behaviour. Recently, interest has been focused on the impact of implicit processes and measures on health-related behaviours. Dual-systems models have been proposed to provide a framework for understanding the effects of explicit or deliberative and implicit or impulsive processes on health behaviours. Informed by a dual-systems approach and self-determination theory, the aim of this study was to test the effects of implicit and explicit motivation on three health-related behaviours in a sample of undergraduate students (N?=?162). Implicit motives were hypothesised to predict behaviour independent of intentions while explicit motives would be mediated by intentions. Regression analyses indicated that implicit motivation predicted physical activity behaviour only. Across all behaviours, intention mediated the effects of explicit motivational variables from self-determination theory. This study provides limited support for dual-systems models and the role of implicit motivation in the prediction of health-related behaviour. Suggestions for future research into the role of implicit processes in motivation are outlined.     

Investigating the predictive validity of implicit and explicit measures of motivation on condom use,physical activity and healthy eating

The literature on health-related behaviours and motivation is replete with research involving explicit processes and their relations with intentions and behaviour. Recently, interest has been focused on the impact of implicit processes and measures on health-related behaviours. Dual-systems models have been proposed to provide a framework for understanding the effects of explicit or deliberative and implicit or impulsive processes on health behaviours. Informed by a dual-systems approach and self-determination theory, the aim of this study was to test the effects of implicit and explicit motivation on three health-related behaviours in a sample of undergraduate students (N?=?162). Implicit motives were hypothesised to predict behaviour independent of intentions while explicit motives would be mediated by intentions. Regression analyses indicated that implicit motivation predicted physical activity behaviour only. Across all behaviours, intention mediated the effects of explicit motivational variables from self-determination theory. This study provides limited support for dual-systems models and the role of implicit motivation in the prediction of health-related behaviour. Suggestions for future research into the role of implicit processes in motivation are outlined.     

Neural circuitry of emotion regulation: Effects of appraisal,attention, and cortisol administration

Psychosocial well-being requires effective regulation of emotional responding in context of threat or stress. Neuroimaging studies have focused on instructed, volitional regulation (e.g., reappraisal or distancing), largely ignoring implicit regulation that does not involve purposeful effort to alter emotional experience. These implicit processes may or may not involve the same neural pathways as explicit regulatory strategies. We examined the neurobiology of implicit emotional regulation processes and the impact of the stress hormone cortisol on these processes. Our study task employed composite pictures of faces and places to examine neural activity during implicit emotional processing (of emotional faces), while these responses were implicitly regulated by attention shift away from the emotionally evocative stimuli, and while subjects reflectively appraised their own emotional response to them. Subjects completed the task in an fMRI scanner after random assignment to receive placebo or hydrocortisone (HCT), an orally administered version of cortisol. Implicit emotional processing activated insula/IFG, dACC/dMPFC, midbrain and amygdala. With attention shifting, we saw diminished signal in emotion generating/response regions (e.g., amygdala) and increased activations in task specific attention regions like parahippocampus. With appraisal of emotions, we observed robust activations in medial prefrontal areas, where activation is also seen in instructed reappraisal studies. We observed no main effects of HCT administration on brain, but males and females showed opposing neural effects in prefrontal areas. The data suggest that different types of emotion regulation utilize overlapping circuits, but with some strategy specific activation. Further study of the dimorphic sex response to cortisol is needed.     

腹内侧前额叶在内隐认知重评中的因果作用

情绪调节对维持个体心理健康、适应社会生活十分重要, 然而以往研究主要关注外显情绪调节, 目前我们对内隐情绪调节的认知神经机制的了解还非常有限。为揭示内隐情绪调节的核心脑区, 本研究使用句子整理任务启动内隐认知重评, 并采用经颅直流电刺激(transcranial direct current stimulation, tDCS)激活内侧前额叶特别是腹内侧前额叶(ventromedial prefrontal cortex, vmPFC), 考察该脑区在内隐情绪调节中的因果作用。结果表明, vmPFC被激活的被试组(实验组, n = 40)在内隐认知重评启动条件下比tDCS伪刺激组(对照组, n = 40), 在观看负性图片时报告了更少的负性情绪, 同时负性图片诱发的晚正成分(late positive potential, LPP)波幅更低(LPP是情绪体验强度的客观指标)。同时, 实验组比对照组在观看负性图片时表现出更低的枕区P1波幅(P1为早期视觉注意程度的客观指标)。以上结果说明, 激活以vmPFC为代表的内侧前额叶不但能增强内隐情绪调节的效果, 还能减少被试对负性刺激的早期注意分配。本研究是采用tDCS技术考察启动引起的内隐情绪调节的首次尝试, 研究结果不但表明了以vmPFC为代表的内侧前额叶在内隐认知重评中的关键作用, 还为临床应用研究指出了增强内隐情绪调节能力的神经调控潜在靶点。     

人际情绪调节与内隐/外显积极情绪的关系:情绪调节困难的调节效应与表达抑制的中介效应

人际情绪调节是重要的社会性情绪调节方式,为阐明其与积极情绪的关系,采用人际情绪调节量表、内隐与外显积极情绪量表、表达抑制量表和情绪调节困难量表进行了调查。1159名被试的分析结果表明：（1）人际情绪调节显著正向预测内隐与外显积极情绪;（2）且情绪调节困难是人际情绪调节预测内隐积极情绪的调节变量;（3）表达抑制是人际情绪调节预测外显积极情绪的中介变量。这表明运用人际情绪调节可增加积极情绪,但是其作用效果与个体的情绪特质相关。     

根植于航空安全文化的内隐安全态度的预测效应

采用飞行管理态度问卷FMAQ 2.0作为航空安全文化背景下外显安全态度的评价工具, 并设计了两个安全态度的内隐联想测试(IAT)对134名飞行员进行了调查, 同时运用专家评定法对其飞行绩效进行了评价, 结果发现：(1) 航空安全态度的IAT效应值较强, 飞行安全更多与积极评价和积极情感联系在一起, 对飞行风险与冒险是消极评价与回避。(2) 外显和内隐安全态度既相关又分离：评价性内隐安全态度和外显态度的驾驶舱工作态度、情感性内隐安全态度和驾驶舱工作态度与自动化驾驶态度显著正相关, 且总外显态度与内隐态度正相关显著, 同时模型数据显示二者是分离性结构。(3) 外显和内隐安全态度均能预测安全绩效, 其中外显态度对飞行作风、飞行技能和机组管理的预测率较高, 内隐态度在安全规章上预测率较高, 其共同预测模型拟合良好。结论：外显与内隐安全态度、安全绩效及其相互关系共同构成特定航空安全文化的完整模型。