作为话语构形方式的范式和生命政治策略的部署——阿甘本的哲学隐性话语思考之二

范式和部署是阿甘本极为重要的方法论构件。阿甘本的范式缘起库恩的科学结构,但更接近福柯的知识型,这是他用以在考古学的视域中深究社会主体角色和功用的装置,以构成某种更加广阔的历史-问题式语境。如果说,范式是制约着主观学术思想构型中看不见的构架,那么部署则是阿甘本在面对社会存在现实中所着力捕捉的某种决定性的隐性权力构型机制。     

“以人为本”不是“以政为本”——《关于深化医药卫生体制改革的意见》的儒家意见

试从儒家的观点出发评价《深化医药卫生体制改革的意见（征求意见稿）》,论证其建议没有真正遵循“以人为本”的原则。具体说来,其建议未能贯彻“藏富于民”的精神,没有实行“家庭决策”的方式,未能充分致力于建设一个人性化的公立医院制度和医疗保健市场。     

The minister as healer,the healer as minister

A major task of the minister is that of healer, and with the healing task come some special opportunities. These relate to the therapy of the word, awakening in all the tragic sense of life, an identity with the wounded healer, distinguishing between healing and curing, and accepting the medical education enterprise as a patient. The healer as minister broadens the healing community into a priesthood of all believers. Further, our rich heritage of healing is anchored in the biblical tradition, and a study of this will show a similarity between ancient and modern healing.This article is based on a paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Ministers in Medical Education of the Society for Health and Human Values, Washington, D.C., October 23–26, 1980.     

Displacement as trauma and trauma as displacement in the experience of refugees

This paper investigates the relations between displacement, home, trauma and the self in the experience of refugees, which has become an issue of unexpected and far-reaching proportions in recent times. It questions to what extent and under what conditions displacement in the world may be traumatic and how trauma may be considered the effect of an inner displacement. Refugees’ lives are marked by forced migration that is related to a certain suffering due to the changes in their family, relational, social and cultural lives. The paper explores the extent to which these changes can represent a break so significant as to be traumatic. It outlines the way in which traumatic experiences can produce an inner displacement and reorganization of one’s mental life that leads to a focus on traumatic complexes. Under the most severe traumatic conditions, this can be understood as a displacement of the central axis of Self, in which the ego complex yields its position to other complexes, with a deep change in the organization and functioning of self. The experience of refugees highlights the way in which we live in a matrix of conscious and unconscious links between inner and outer worlds that need deeper and simultaneous consideration to understand their implications and mutual resonances for the psyche. Clinical cases of refugees will illustrate some aspects of these interconnections.     

Heuristics as beliefs and as behaviors: the adaptiveness of the "hot hand"

and analyzed reasoning by asking: what are the reasoner's goals? This emphasizes the adaptiveness of behavior rather than whether a belief is normative. Belief in the "hot hand" in basketball suggests that players experiencing streaks should be given more shots, but this has been seen as a fallacy due to failure to find dependencies between players' shots. Based on their findings, I demonstrate by Markov modeling and simulation that streaks are valid allocation cues for deciding who to give shots to, because this behavior achieves the team goal of scoring more. Empirically I show that this adaptive heuristic is supported by the fallacious belief in dependency, more so as skill level increases. I extend the theoretical analysis to identify general conditions under which following streaks should be beneficial. Overall, this approach illustrates the advantages of analyzing reasoning in terms of adaptiveness.     

儒主道辅本道兼儒--论扬雄《法言》的思想特征

《法言》是扬雄拟《论语》而作的一部语录体散文著作,其目的是标举儒学以纠绳诸子。然而仔细品读《法言》,其中也不乏对道家思想的吸收和内化。前人的研究大多囿于儒家思想的角度,而对《法言》中的道家思想则有所忽略。实际上,儒道水乳融合、交互影响的特征贯穿了《法言》始末。把握这一线索,不仅有助于对扬雄一生思想、行事中的矛盾现象作出客观、准确的诠释,更全面地了解扬雄,而且有助于对整个汉代哲学史、思想史以及魏晋玄学的形成发展脉络等有更为清晰准确的认识。     

Philosophy as the In-Between

What is the difference between doing philosophy and doing the history of philosophy? Where should the line be drawn between “using” previous philosophers to make one's point and discussing what past philosophers claimed? In trying to confront these questions, this essay starts with a reflection on the difference between doing philosophy and doing the history of philosophy as proposed by the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze, and confronts it with a different one derived from the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. The ideas developed by Heidegger will then lead to a definition of “philosophy” and to some etymology-based reflections on what a “philosopher” is that Plato proposes in his “Symposium”. The essay continues by arguing that, when doing philosophy, it is necessary to return to philosophy's past in order to recoup philosophical momentum. The essay concludes with some reflection on the possible similarities between Plato's characterization of Eros as the first philosopher and the difference between doing philosophy and doing the history of philosophy.     

Counterintuitiveness as the hallmark of religiosity

This article presents empirical evidence for the hypothesis that persons consider counterintuitive representations more likely to be religious than other kinds of beliefs. In three studies the subjects were asked to rate the probable religiousness of various kinds of imaginary beliefs. The results show that counterintuitive representations in general, and counterintuitive representations involving a conscious agent in particular, are considered much more likely to be religious. Counterintuitiveness thus seems to be an important element in a folk-understanding of religion.     

文本作为思想的资源

人们能够从文本之中得到什么,首先取决于人们打算把文本看成是什么.文本是真理库吗?是像图书馆那样的资料堆积?还是一座森林?如果是前者,那末,怎样认识文本的真理性?究竟是谁掌管着打开这座真理库的钥匙?如果是第二种情况,则我们要问,资料的堆积方式是随心所欲的吗?它们是否可以根据需要提供给人们不同的东西?甚至堆积方式本身就能形成一门"学问",类似指导儿童摆弄积木的辅助手册.至于一座森林,它有着自己完整的生命系统.如果人们只见树木不见森林,肯定不能认识这个系统的真面目.当然,如果认为这个系统与人无关,那这种想法也很容易遭到驳斥,正如环境主义者所批评的那样,它把人的生活理解得过于狭隘了.     

Representation as the Representation of Experience

This essay deals, mainly, with the notion of representation. Representation is associated with texts and, as such, is contrasted to the true singular statement. It is argued that the relationship between the text and what the text represents can never be modeled on the relationship between a true singular statement and what the statement is true of, and, furthermore, that the former relationship is aesthetic while the latter is epistemological in nature. This aesthetic relationship between the represented and its representation is investigated from the perspective of historical writing. This offers an interesting perspective because historical texts are representations, but they also aim at giving us "the truth" about the past. Historical representation, therefore, is the kind of representation coming closest to the cognitive claims traditionally investigated by epistemology. The notion of aesthetic and historical experience is explored in order to define the relationship between historical representation and what it represents.     

Disbelief as the Dual of Belief

The duality of truth and falsity in a Boolean algebra of propositions is used to generate a duality of belief and disbelief. To each additive probability measure that represents belief there corresponds a dual additive measure that represents disbelief. The dual measure has its own peculiar calculus, in which, for example, measures are added when propositions are combined under conjunction. A Venn diagram of the measure has the contradiction as its total space. While additive measures are not self‐dual, the epistemic state of complete ignorance is represented by the unique, monotonic, non‐additive measure that is self‐dual in its contingent propositions. Convex sets of additive measures fail to represent complete ignorance since they are not self‐dual.     

Justification as the appearance of knowledge

Adequate epistemic justification is best conceived as the appearance, over time, of knowledge to the subject. ‘Appearance’ is intended literally, not as a synonym for belief. It is argued through consideration of examples that this account gets the extension of ‘adequately justified belief’ at least roughly correct. A more theoretical reason is then offered to regard justification as the appearance of knowledge: If we have a knowledge norm for assertion, we do our best to comply with this norm when we express as assertions only beliefs that appear to us to be knowledge. If we are doing our best, there is little point in further sanctions. So a norm of knowledge for assertion would lead to a secondary norm of justified belief as the appearance of knowledge, marking a point at which our assertions may be corrected but should not be blamed.     

Silence as the Voice of Trauma

Silence is a key to the unspoken world of the patient. Rather than interpreting silence as a defensive maneuver, the analyst may understand this disruption as a royal road to the patient’s traumatic experiences. The author proposes to recognize traumatic silences in the analytic process and the transference as a re-experiencing of past, unpredictable traumatic affective states and memories. Silences in this context are both a repeat of a disconnecting experience as well as a manifestation of a silencing identification with the original silencer. The clinical material illustrates effects of a German mother’s World War II (WWII) personal traumata and collective shame-based silence on her daughter’s self and good object development. In the daughter’s analysis, the patient and the analyst, who herself experienced similar WWII traumata, face the pain of trauma recovery and un-silencing. The author suggests that the deadening effect of past traumata may be reversed by an analytic process of re-membering and re-speaking for both the patient and analyst. This allows for a more transparent, subjective experience in the transference and a verbal integration of ego functions.