心理距离对风险决策框架效应的影响

解释水平理论是一种解释心理距离怎样影响个体的思维决策的社会认知理论。研究基于解释水平理论,探查了心理距离对风险决策框架效应的影响。实验从心理距离的四个维度入手,每个维度均采用2（解释水平高、低）×2（正框架、负框架）的被试间设计,用于检验解释水平是否调节框架对被试决策任务的选择。结果表明,当心理距离越远,解释水平越高时,被试产生明显的框架效应;而当心理距离越近,解释水平越低时,框架效应明显减弱。除了大概率情况下的框架效应削弱至不显著,其余维度的高、低解释水平下的框架效应均显著。     

Abstractness and Messages Describing Consequences Promote Healthier Behavioral Intentions

Many health-risk behaviors present a self-control conflict in which the short-term outcomes of an action conflict with its long-term consequences. Across three studies, we find that an abstract construal level leads people to focus on long-term rather than short-term consequences when both are described in a message (vs. no message). Studies 1 and 2 explore this hypothesis through a risk behavior (snacking on sugary products), and Study 3 does the same through a health behavior (physical exercise). In Study 1, the Behavioral Identification Form scale is used to measure the construal level as a personal disposition; Studies 2 and 3 use a priming task designed by Freitas, Gollwitzer, and Trope to manipulate the construal level. All these studies show that, under an abstract mindset, people who have read a mixed-outcome message (vs. no message) tend to base their behavioral plans on long-term outcomes. Individually or in small groups (e.g. school class, therapy groups) health messages can be presented along with protocols to change construal level and thus, promote healthier intentions.     

When not to accentuate the positive: Re-examining valence effects in attribute framing

While the expanding body of attribute framing literature provides keen insights into individual judgments and evaluations, a lack of theoretical perspective inhibits scholars from more fully extending research foci beyond a relatively straightforward examination of message content. The current research applies construal level theory to attribute framing research. The authors conduct a meta-analysis of 107 published articles and then conceptually expand this knowledge base by synthesizing attribute framing research and construal level concepts. Results suggest that attribute framing is most effective when there is congruence between the construal level evoked in a frame and the evaluator’s psychological distance from the framed event. A follow-up experiment confirms that the congruence between a frame’s construal level and psychological distance—not simply its valence—appears to be driving attribute framing effects. This research proposes to shift the focus in attribute framing research from that of message composition to a more complex relationship between the message and the recipient.     

Where to seat the applicant? How spatial distance influences the effect of self‐promotion on interviewer evaluations

In high‐stakes contexts such as job interviews, people seek to be evaluated favorably by others and they attempt to accomplish such favorable judgments particularly through self‐promotional behaviors. We sought to examine the persuasiveness of job candidates’ self‐promotion by examining job applicants’ subjective hireability from the perspective of construal‐level theory. Construal‐level theory states that perceptions occur from different levels of psychological distance (i.e., distal vs. proximal). This distance is created by other dimensions of distance (e.g., spatial or social distance) and affects how individuals construe incoming information. From a large distance, people more readily process abstract information, whereas from a close distance, people more readily process concrete information. Specifically, construal compatibility occurs when abstract versus concrete features of a stimulus match the psychological distance experienced by message‐recipients. Construal compatibility (vs. incompatibility) makes evaluations (e.g., of messages) more favorable. To apply this principle to self‐promotion, we created self‐promotional videos of a job interview, in which the applicant sat either far away from or close to the hiring manager (manipulating psychological distance); the applicant, then, used either direct or indirect self‐promotion (manipulating message construal level). The results showed participants reported stronger intention to hire the applicant when distance matched (vs. did not match) the type of self‐promotion the applicant used.     

High Level of Construal and Psychological Distance Reduce Melioration

We examined how level of construal and psychological distance affected performance in a task in which value of alternatives depended on frequency of choice. Melioration, a sub‐optimal choice strategy that fails to take into account such value changes, has been found to be prevalent and difficult to change. Participants repeatedly chose between two buttons to earn as many coins as possible. Button A earned N coins, button B earned N + 3 coins, and N was the number of A presses in the last five trials. In this situation, B has a higher immediate payoff, but because choosing A increases the return from both buttons for the next five trials, maximizing A choices is the optimal strategy. We predicted that because a global perspective is needed to appreciate the dependency of value on frequency of choice, frequency of choosing the globally maximizing alternative (A) would increase when participants apply a higher level of construal and assume a more psychologically distal perspective. Study 1 manipulated construal level through segmenting the sequence of trials into segments of different size, with bigger segments representing higher level of construal. In Study 2, participants played a practice game, and we manipulated the probability of playing the actual game. Both a higher level of construal and a lower probability of playing the actual game (higher distance) increased the number of A choices. These results suggest that a broad perspective that is induced by high level of construal or by psychological distancing may reduce sub‐optimal, meliorating choice. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of culture and self‐construals on predispositions toward verbal communication

This study tested the effects of culture and self‐construals (i.e., independence and interdependence) on predispositions toward verbal communication. For the purpose of this study, we focused on two main areas of verbal communication predispositions: (a) communication apprehension and (b) argumentativeness. In our path model, we expected that culture‐level individualism increases one's construal of self as independent, which, in turn, leads to a higher degree of argumentativeness and a lower level of communication apprehension. We also expected that culture‐level individualism decreases one's construal of self as interdependent, which, in turn, leads to a lower degree of argumentativeness and a higher level of communication apprehension. Data to test the model were drawn from undergraduates (N=539) studying in Korea, Hawaii, and mainland U.S. The data were partially consistent with the theoretical predictions made. The implications of the results for theory and practice are discussed.     

Development in the understanding of causes of success and failure in verbal communication

Each child observed a communication game in which two dolls sent messages to each other so that the listener doll could pick out a matching card.Allocations and justifications of blame were examined as a function of the age of the child, adequacy of message, correctness of choice, and seating position. The results were generally consistent with two propositions. Younger children passed judgements as though they were asking themselves whether the message sent was inconsistent with the speaker's card — only when this was so was the speaker blamed. Older children blamed the speaker and cited the inadequacy of the message whenever the message did not identify the speaker's card uniquely, even when communication was successful.     

Construing Consumer Decision Making

Understanding how consumers represent outcomes and weigh different decision criteria is critical to consumer behavior research. Construal‐level theory articulates how psychological distance alters the mental representation of inputs and the effective weight given to “high‐level” and “low‐level” criteria. Trope, Liberman, and Wakslak (2007) provide a review of this literature. In this commentary, we illustrate the relevance of construal‐level theory to issues in consumer psychology, particularly consumer decision making. We highlight specific questions that researchers could address by considering consumer behavior within the framework of changes in construal. We focus our discussion on how construal levels affect consideration sets and how shifts in weight from high‐level to low‐level features might lead to consumer regret and dissatisfaction. Construal level can help us understand follow‐through on stated intentions for “really new” products and illuminate public‐policy issues such as consumer saving for retirement and nonredemption of rebates. We identify open issues related to how construal levels for the same object evolve over time and whether resources differ in terms of how susceptible they are to psychological distance effects.     

The effect of construal level on unethical behavior

Construal level theory predicts that people will judge immoral events more harshly when these are presented in a way that elicits a higher construal level, relative to a lower construal level. Previous research supported this prediction using an Israeli sample but not a U.S. sample. This article compared Israeli and U.S. samples with respect to the interactive effect of utility and construal level on unethical behavioral intentions. We found that construal level did not affect unethical behavioral intentions in either the U.S. samples for low-utility level or the Israeli samples for low- and high-utility levels. In contrast, construal level affected unethical behavioral intentions in the U.S. sample for high-utility level: unethical behavioral intentions were higher in the low-construal level compared to the high-construal level. We discuss these findings and suggest additional factors that challenge arguments concerning the direct effect of construal level on unethical behavior.     

时间洞察力特质对食品选择偏好的影响:解释水平对内隐偏好的作用

探索两类时间洞察力特质个体外显与内隐食物选择偏好。实验1用《津巴多时间洞察力问卷》选出"现在享乐"和"未来定向"两类个体,考察其外显食物选择偏好,结果发现,与"未来定向"组相比,"现在享乐"个体选择更多垃圾食品。实验2中,两类个体分别接受不同的解释水平操作,之后完成单靶内隐联想测验,以考察其对垃圾食品的内隐态度,并检验解释水平的调节作用。结果发现,与未来定向组相比,现在享乐组对"垃圾食品"存在内隐偏好。此外,对现在享乐者,解释水平改变会对食物选择偏好有显著影响;而对未来定向者,其影响不显著。这表明与未来时间定向者比,现在享乐者在外显、内隐层面对"垃圾食品"有选择偏好,并且解释水平会通过改变心理距离对其内隐选择偏好产生影响。     

Effects of construal level and need for cognition on consumers' responses to temporally framed benefits

Applying construal level (CL) theory as a theoretical framework, this study examined the conditions under which temporally framed messages are effective. A 2(temporal framing: near‐future vs. distant‐future rewards) × 2(CL: high vs. low) × 2(need for cognition: high vs. low) between‐subjects design was employed. Data from two online experiments showed that consumers generated more favorable responses to the ad when the temporal distance matched consumer CL. Low‐construal consumers, either chronic or primed, were found to prefer product information framed with near‐future rewards. This CL temporal match effect appeared for consumers high in need for cognition only. Further, the matched message enhanced consumers' perception of message quality and this perceived message quality mediated the effect of the CL temporal match on consumer responses to the ad. Theoretical and managerial implications were discussed.     

预期交流与创造力的关系:解释水平的调节作用

该研究探讨了预期交流对创造力的影响, 以及解释水平在其中的调节作用。实验1采用结构性想象任务探讨预期交流是否影响创造力。结果表明, 相较于没有预期交流, 预期交流条件下的个体表现出更高的创造力。实验2采取了创意产生任务, 并探讨了解释水平在其中的调节作用。结果表明, 当完成抽象的、高解释水平任务时, 相较于无预期交流, 预期交流条件下个体在新奇性和变通性两个维度上表现出了更高的创造力; 当完成具体的、低解释水平任务时, 预期交流的效应不复存在。也就是说, 只有当创造力任务要求高解释水平的抽象思维时, 预期交流才能促进创造力的发挥。总结而言, 本研究在过往对于交流与创造力以及解释水平与创造力的研究基础上进一步发现, 对于抽象创造力任务, 虽然真正的信息交流尚未发生, 但仅仅对于交流的预期就会提高创造力水平。     

Temporal construal

Construal level theory proposes that temporal distance changes people's responses to future events by changing the way people mentally represent those events. The greater the temporal distance, the more likely are events to be represented in terms of a few abstract features that convey the perceived essence of the events (high-level construals) rather than in terms of more concrete and incidental details of the events (low-level construals). The informational and evaluative implications of high-level construals, compared with those of low-level construals, should therefore have more impact on responses to distant-future events than near-future events. This article explores the implications of construal level theory for temporal changes in evaluation, prediction, and choice. The authors suggest that construal level underlies a broad range of evaluative and behavioral consequences of psychological distance from events.     

The effect of shopping channel (online vs. offline) on message framing of naturalness

Naturalness is a significant driver of food-related choices. However, there is scarce knowledge of how textual cues could be utilised to enhance the effectiveness of naturalness claims. Drawn from construal level theory, we attempted to examine how different methods of framing naturalness affect consumers in online vs. offline shopping contexts. Study 1 employed a 2 (abstract vs. concrete) × 2 (online vs. offline) experiment with 127 respondents and demonstrated that concrete framing heightens positive attitudes via increased perceived concreteness of the message, especially in offline shopping situations. Study 2 employed a 4 (abstract vs. control vs. concrete without mentioning natural vs. concrete mentioning natural) × 2 (online vs. offline) experiment with 173 respondents and replicated findings from Study 1. Furthermore, Study 2 ruled out alternative explanations of message authenticity, transparency and credibility and indicated that the effect of message framings is truly driven by the congruency between consumers' construal level and message framings. Interestingly, no significant effect of abstractly framed naturalness claims was observed in online shopping situations, contradicting existing studies. This suggests that other psychological mechanisms may interplay and hinder the effectiveness of abstract framing in our study. Taken together, the current research demonstrate that consumers' mental representation varies across shopping platforms and how it affects their evaluation of different methods of message framing.     

Crafting messages to promote water conservation: Using time‐framed messages to boost conservation actions in the United States and China

Grounded in construal‐level theory (CLT), this experiment examines how messages with different temporal frames (i.e., present‐ vs. future‐framed) influence individuals' perceptions of, and reactions to, water conservation. One hundred ninety‐three participants, 99 from China and 94 from the United States, participated in this study. Results indicated that a present‐framed message results in more positive attitudes toward water conservation than the future‐framed message. Participants who scored higher on individual future‐time orientation show stronger behavioral intention to conserve water than participants who scored lower. A significant interaction between temporal message framing and country emerged such that the future‐framed message resulted in greater behavioral intention for Chinese participants than their U.S. counterparts whereas the present‐framed message did not differentially influence Chinese and U.S. participants. Implications of findings for theory‐building and application are discussed.     

解释水平理论完善过程中的四个问题

经过多年发展,解释水平理论的理论基础、理论机制、理论应用都得到了系统的总结。但是,在解释水平理论的完善过程中,还存在一些问题。第一,解释水平的变化是否完全基于心理距离的变化;第二,解释水平与心理距离的因果关系问题;第三,解释水平的变量属性界定问题;第四,解释水平间接操纵与直接操纵的效果比较。这些问题都涉及到了解释水平理论中的概念和作用机制,需研究者们进一步探讨。     

A construal level approach to understanding interpersonal processes

Construal level theory proposes that viewing events and objects from a distance (whether physical or psychological) leads individuals to construe them in more abstract, higher‐level ways. At high‐level construal, individuals focus on the overall gist or bigger picture, rather than on situationally‐dependent, concrete details. What patterns then emerge in how construal level relates to interpersonal processes? We find that an individual's construal level has implications for both (a) perceptions of others and (b) social influence. Specifically, our review suggests that high‐level (relative to low‐level) construal is related to greater holistic processing of the self and others by discussing literature linking construal level to person‐perception biases such as the fundamental attribution error and correspondence bias, as well as research on how construal level relates to stereotyping and prejudice. We further review a broad array of research examining social influence relating to self‐relevant feedback, the influence of aggregate versus anecdotal information, and the impact of abstract versus concrete language. We propose future avenues for CLT research relating to person‐perception biases, romantic relationships, stereotyping and prejudice, and the strategic use of construal level in the pursuit of specific interpersonal goals.     

Can Implicit Theory Influence Construal Level?

Beliefs about stability and change are captured by individuals’ implicit theories. Incremental‐theorists believe that human traits and world‐dispositions are malleable and can change through effort, whereas entity‐theorists believe that human traits and world‐dispositions are fixed. In this research we find that the implicit theory an individual holds influences an important aspect of the cognitive process, namely, the level of construal at which information is processed. In three studies we demonstrate that, compared to entity‐theorists, incremental‐theorists adopt a more abstract level of information construal, and the increased cognitive flexibility afforded by an incremental‐theory mindset explains this effect.     

Better moods for better eating?: How mood influences food choice

How do moods influence one's preference for foods? By introducing the role of enjoyment- versus health-oriented benefits of foods in the mood and food consumption relationship, this research informs both temporal construal theory and mood management framework by positing that mood influences the choice between healthy versus indulgent foods through its impact on temporal construal, which alters the weights people put on long-term health benefits versus short-term mood management benefits when making choices. The results from four experiments show that a positive mood cues distal, abstract construal and increases the salience of long-term goals such as health, leading to greater preference for healthy foods over indulgent foods. The results also show that a negative mood cues proximal construal and increases the salience of immediate, concrete goals such as mood management, leading to greater preference for indulgent foods over healthy foods.