Effects of soundtrack music on the video game experience

ABSTRACT

Aesthetic elements such as soundtrack music have been neglected in game entertainment research. Based on previous work in games research and the psychology of film soundtracks (Cohen, 2001), we test the hypotheses that soundtrack music contributes to players‘ enjoyment via intensification of emotions (affective route) and via amplification of the sense of spatial presence and identification with the game character (cognitive routes). Study 1 tested these assumptions with N = 68 young male players of an episode of Assassin’s Creed: Black Flag^®, either with the original soundtrack music present or absent, and reported game enjoyment, as well as scores of the assumed mediator variables afterward. In Study 2, N = 59 young males played an episode of Alien: Isolation^® with soundtrack music present or absent and reported their horror experience, as well as the experiential facets as in study 1. Findings clearly show an indirect effect of soundtrack music on enjoyment through positive emotions (study 1) and an impact of (shocking) music on players’ horror experience (study 2). However, a mediation of the effect of soundtrack music on game enjoyment via spatial presence or identification was not established. We discuss implications for future research in game entertainment.     

Infants' Expectations in Play: The Joy of Peek-a-boo

Abstract

The role of expectations in infants' enjoyment of play was studied by observing their smiling, laughter, and eyebrow raises during a peek-a-boo game that contained occasional trick trials. In Experiments 1 and 2, 6, 7-, and 8-month-olds (n = 29) participated in a peek-a-boo game in which, on occasional “person-switch” trials, one adult hid and a second adult “reappeared” in his or her place. Infants in all age groups smiled less following person-switch reappearances than following normal ones, with the difference increasing with age. In Experiment 3, 7-month-old infants (n = 10) played a peek-a-boo game in which the adult occasionally reappeared in a different location. Smiling decreased for “location switches” just as it had for person switches. Infants in all age groups were more likely to exhibit eyebrow raises following trick reappearances than following normal ones. These findings suggest that infants as young as 6 months have expectations about the identity and location of a returning person, that conformity to these expectations contributes to infants' enjoyment of games such as peek-a-boo, and that infants of this age may not yet enjoy deviations from their expectations. Implications are discussed for theories of playful enjoyment, for the cognitive antecedents of positive affect, and for cognitive development.     

The Concept of Social Status

Summary

This study investigated the effects on prejudice of either a cooperative or competitive strategy adopted by either a white or a black partner. It indicated that involvement in a game situation led to a reduction in prejudice when a white S had a white partner who cooperated or competed, or a black partner who cooperated. If the black partner competed, however, there was a statistically nonsignificant increase in prejudice. Further, Ss tended to imitate the strategy of their partner. The results were considered in relation to the general effect of competition and cooperation in society.     

An Examination of the Role Individual Differences Play in Videogame–Based Training

Videogames are emerging as an increasingly popular training tool in the military. Given this trend, it is important to investigate factors that maximize the effectiveness of this training medium. The present research analyzed the impact of trainee attributes (i.e., prior videogame experience, videogame self-efficacy, and goal orientation) on game-based training outcomes. Participants completed a game–based tactics training exercise. The training exercise used America's Army, a first-person-perspective videogame with a single-player section to introduce game-specific tasks, followed by a multiplayer section where participants form small teams to conduct collaborative missions. Prior to and after the training exercise, participants completed online questionnaires. Results suggest that the trainee attributes, as a set, had a positive impact on trainee motivation, trainee satisfaction, ease in using the training game interface, metacognitive strategies utilized during training, and time spent engaging in the training game. These findings have implications for instructors using videogames as training tools. Recommendations for future research in this area are provided.     

A Survey of Dynamic Principles Governing Memory

A triadic coalition game was structured as an achievement-oriented situation by inclusion of a skill-based game task. Deductions regarding coalition partner choices were derived from Atkinsons' model of achievement motivation with the expectation that achievement-oriented players (Ms < Maf) would prefer moderate-risk strategy options while failure-avoidant players (Maf < Ms) would avoid moderate-risk strategies.

Observation was made of the coalition partner preferences of 126 college sophomore males and females who played the game in same-sex triads. The Ss were categorized into motive configuration groups on the basis of scores derived from the Test of Insight and the Test Anxiety Questionnaire.

The results were supportive of the hypotheses, since the Ms < Maf group chose moderate-risk coalition options more frequently than did the Maf < Ms group. By contrast the Maf < Ms group chose low-risk strategies and tended to avoid moderate-risk coalition options. While other coalition-game studies have shown differences in strategy behavior between males and females, sex differences did not occur in the present game. The lack of sex differences was explained by the high level of concern for winning among members of both sexes generated by the achievement nature of the game task.     

Individual Differences in Good Manners Rather Than Compassion Predict Fair Allocations of Wealth in the Dictator Game

One of the most common tools for studying pro‐sociality is the dictator game, in which allocations to one's partner are often described in terms of altruism. However, the motivations driving these allocations may represent either emotional concern for others (compassion), adherence to social norms regarding fairness (politeness), or both. In this article, we apply personality psychology to the study of behavior in the dictator game, in which we examine the discriminant validity of distinct pro‐social constructs from the Big Five and HEXACO models in relation to allocations of wealth. Across four studies (Study 1: N = 192; Study 2: N = 212; Study 3: N = 304; Study 4: N = 90) utilizing both hypothetical and incentivized designs, we found that the politeness—but not compassion—aspect of Big Five Agreeableness, as well as HEXACO Honesty‐Humility, uniquely predicted dictator allocations within their respective personality models. These findings contribute to a growing literature indicating that the standard dictator game measures “good manners” or adherence to norms concerning fairness, rather than pure emotional concern or compassionate motives, and have important implications for how this paradigm is used and interpreted in psychological research.     

An empirical analysis of online gamers' perceptions of game items: modified theory of consumption values approach

The aims of this article are (1) to propose a modified theory of consumption values (MTCV) for investigation of online gamer perceptions of the value of purchasable game items and (2) to apply the developed MTCV to multiple game genres and player age groups. To address these aims, 327 valid questionnaires were obtained and analyzed. The original theory of consumption values (TCV) was modified to apply to the specific characteristics of online games. The original TCV specifies five types of consumption values: functional value, social value, emotional value, conditional value, and epistemic value. After revising the TCV to apply to the examination of online games, we proposed that the MTCV be composed of character competency value, enjoyment value, visual authority value, and monetary value. The validity of the MTCV was proven by statistically analyzing the responses provided by the 327 valid questionnaires. To examine the second aim, experiments were conducted to examine the MTCV in three online game genres-massive multiplayer online role-playing games, first-person shooters games, and casual games. The second aim was also studied via questionnaires that examined the ages of online gamers. It was determined that massive multiplayer online role-playing games players regard visual authority value and monetary value as more important than do casual gamers. It was also determined that younger gamers tend to be more interested in visual authority, whereas older gamers tend to be more interested in character competency. This research provides a foundation for future studies to extend the MTCV to consider other user factors, such as cultural effects.     

Beyond self-selection in video game play: an experimental examination of the consequences of massively multiplayer online role-playing game play.

There is burgeoning interest in the study of video games. Existing work is limited by the use of correlational designs and is thus unable to make causal inferences or remove self-selection biases from observed results. The recent development of online, socially integrated video games (massively multiplayer online role-playing games [MMORPGs]) has created a new experience for gamers. This randomized, longitudinal study examined the effects of being assigned to play different video game types on game usage, health, well-being, sleep, socializing, and academics. One hundred 18- to 20-year-old participants (73% male; 68% Caucasian) were randomly assigned to play arcade, console, solo computer, or MMORPG games for 1 month. The MMORPG group differed significantly from other groups after 1 month, reporting more hours spent playing, worse health, worse sleep quality, and greater interference in "real-life" socializing and academic work. In contrast, this group also reported greater enjoyment in playing, greater interest in continuing to play, and greater acquisition of new friendships. MMORPGs represent a different gaming experience with different consequences than other types of video games and appear to pose both unique risks and benefits from their use.     

The pleasures of success: game-related efficacy experiences as a mediator between player performance and game enjoyment

In the present study, the interplay of player performance, game-related self-efficacy experiences, and the resulting effects on game enjoyment are investigated. We hypothesized that a player's performance stimulates enjoyment via its potential to stimulate game-related self-efficacy experiences. In a laboratory setting, participants (N?=?213) played a jump 'n' run game. Their performance during game play was recorded by log-file software, and efficacy and enjoyment were assessed with questionnaires. As predicted, both player performance and game-related self-efficacy experience were significant predictors of enjoyment. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that game-related self-efficacy experience significantly mediates the relationship between player performance and game enjoyment.     

Effects of Gendered Language on Gender Stereotyping in Computer‐Mediated Communication: The Moderating Role of Depersonalization and Gender‐Role Orientation

This experiment examined what situational and dispositional features moderate the effects of linguistic gender cues on gender stereotyping in anonymous, text‐based computer‐mediated communication. Participants played a trivia game with an ostensible partner via computer, whose comments represented either prototypically masculine or feminine language styles. Consistent with the social identity model of deindividuation effects, those who did not exchange brief personal profiles with their partner (i.e., depersonalization) were more likely to infer their partner’s gender from the language cues than those who did. Depersonalization, however, facilitated stereotype‐consistent conformity behaviors only among gender‐typed individuals; that is, participants conformed more to their masculine‐ than feminine‐comment partners, and men were less conforming than were women, only when they were both gender‐typed and depersonalized.     

Self-efficacy versus perceived enjoyment as predictors of physical activity behaviour

Objective: Self-efficacy and physical activity (PA) enjoyment are related to PA behaviour, but it is unclear which is more important and how they interrelate. The purpose of this study was to examine how these two constructs interrelate to influence PA behaviour.

Design: Participants were low-active adults (n = 448) participating in a RCT examining the effect of a PA promotion intervention. Participants completed physical activity, enjoyment and self-efficacy measures at baseline, six and 12 months.

Results: Self-efficacy and enjoyment at both baseline and six months predicted PA at 12 months. However, enjoyment was a stronger predictor than self-efficacy, in that self-efficacy no longer predicted PA behaviour when included alongside enjoyment. In follow-up mediation analyses, enjoyment at six months did not mediate the effect of baseline self-efficacy on 12-month PA; however, six-month self-efficacy mediated the effect of baseline enjoyment on 12-month PA.

Conclusion: Our results indicate that interventions should perhaps initially focus on increasing enjoyment of physical activity. Greater PA enjoyment appears to influence individuals’ self-reported ability to engage in regular PA (i.e. higher self-efficacy ratings). Additional research is needed to better understand the interrelationships between self-efficacy and enjoyment and how these constructs affect PA.     

Gamers just want to have fun? Toward an understanding of the online game acceptance

This study sought to examine the factors affecting the acceptance of an entertainment medium, particularly online games, by expanding the technology acceptance model. To measure factors affecting the acceptance of online games, we fielded a survey with 244 gamers serving as respondents. Perceived usefulness, enjoyment, and economic value were found to have a positive influence on attitude toward gaming, whereas perceived ease of use was not a significant predictor. In addition, we found that gender and game type (multiplayer or not) showed differing patterns of results. Interestingly, perceptions of mass acceptance of gaming were found to have a negative effect on attitude toward online games. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Need Satisfaction Supportive Game Features as Motivational Determinants: An Experimental Study of a Self-Determination Theory Guided Exergame

Empirical studies have validated that basic needs satisfaction supported by video game play predicts motivation and engagement outcomes. However, few studies specifically manipulated game features for each of the three basic needs specified in the self-determination theory (SDT) to examine how the game features impact players' need satisfaction and game experience. The current study employed an in-house developed exergame and manipulated the game features in a 2 (autonomy-supportive game features: on vs. off) × 2 (competence-supportive game features: on vs. off) experiment to predict need satisfaction, game enjoyment, motivation for future play, effort for gameplay, self-efficacy for exercise using the game, likelihood of game recommendation, and game rating. The manipulated game features led to the corresponding need satisfaction. Manipulated autonomy-supportive and competence-supportive game features had main effects on most motivation and engagement outcomes. Need satisfaction of autonomy and need satisfaction of competence were both found to be mediators for the relationships between the game features and the motivation and engagement outcomes. The findings add evidence to support the underlying mechanism postulated by SDT for media enjoyment and motivation as well as the emerging entertainment research conceptualizing enjoyment as need satisfaction. The findings also have practical implications for intervention effort that intends to capitalize the motivational pull of video games.     

Unequal but not separate: Emergence of rich–poor cooperation in resource exchange

Addressing inequality is a critical challenge for society as a whole and requires sustained efforts to promote fairness and opportunity for all. Filling in the resource gap across social classes is essential in reducing inequality. Previous studies have revealed that ingroup favouritism hinders the rich from cooperating with the poor and expands the wealth gap. Nevertheless, how to find ways of narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor remains an open question. Inducing rich–poor cooperation could be effective in eliciting resource flow across classes. In this study, two experiments using a modified Prisoner's Dilemma game were conducted in Japan (N = 213) and China (N = 150) to examine whether highlighting partners' cooperativeness under permeable group boundaries induces rich–poor cooperation. All participants were allocated to the rich group and participated in the game with programmed rich- or poor-group partner bots, whose cooperation rates were manipulated. Despite the initial resource disparities between participants and the partner bots, participants were more likely to select and cooperate with cooperative poor-group partners than with non-cooperative rich-group partners. Generalized trust played an important role in the enhancement of rich–poor cooperation. The findings shed light on the possibility of reducing inequality and promoting social mobility in society.     

Mediation analysis of the association between use of NRT for smoking reduction and attempts to stop smoking

Objectives: Use of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) for smoking reduction (SR) is linked to higher quit attempt rates than SR without NRT. This study aimed to assess the possible mediating roles of confidence in ability to quit, enjoyment of smoking and motivation to quit in this association.

Design: Cross-sectional survey.

Main outcome measures: Smokers were asked if they were currently attempting SR, and if they were, whether they were using NRT. Motivation to stop, enjoyment of smoking, confidence in ability to stop, and previous quit attempts, were also assessed.

Results: There was no evidence that confidence in ability to quit or enjoyment of smoking mediated the association between the use of NRT for SR and attempts to quit. Only motivation to stop partially mediated between the use of NRT for SR and attempts to stop (indirect effect: odds ratio 1.08, p?<?0.001).

Conclusion: Although this study is limited by its cross-sectional design, the findings point towards the possibility that the use of NRT to aid SR may promote attempts to stop through increasing motivation to quit but not by increasing confidence or by reducing enjoyment of smoking. Longitudinal studies are required to draw firmer conclusions about the possible mediating effects of motivation to quit.     

The crossover of job crafting between coworkers and its relationship with adaptivity

This daily diary study among 55 dyads of co-workers working within the same unit examined the crossover of expansive job crafting which, framed within the Job-Demands Resources Model, consists of two distinct behaviours: seeking challenges and seeking resources. We hypothesized that seeking resources and seeking challenges are transferred from one employee (actor) to the other (partner) on a daily basis and that there is more crossover of job crafting from actor to partner when the partner is high in empathy. Moreover, job crafting was expected to relate positively to daily adaptation to changes as measured both by self-reports and peer-reports. Multilevel analyses confirmed the crossover of seeking challenges and partly confirmed the crossover of seeking resources. Empathy of the partner acts as a moderator in this latter crossover process: there is more crossover of seeking resources from actor to partner when the partner is high in empathy. Moreover, day-level seeking resources and seeking challenges were both positively related to self-rated day-level adaptivity. Day-level seeking resources was also positively related to other-rated day-level adaptivity. These results imply that stimulating job crafting within organizations is valuable because it spreads around and can help in the adaptivity to changes.     

Effectance and control as determinants of video game enjoyment.

This article explores video game enjoyment originated by games' key characteristic, interactivity. An online experiment (N=500) tested experiences of effectance (perceived influence on the game world) and of being in control as mechanisms that link interactivity to enjoyment. A video game was manipulated to either allow normal play, reduce perceived effectance, or reduce perceived control. Enjoyment ratings suggest that effectance is an important factor in video game enjoyment but that the relationship between control of the game situation and enjoyment is more complex.     

Feeling the need for (personalized) speed: how natural controls and customization contribute to enjoyment of a racing game through enhanced immersion

Prior research suggests that video game features that appear natural or that otherwise allow players to identify with their in-game experience will promote enjoyment. Using a 2 × 2 experiment, this study demonstrates the positive effects of a steering-wheel controller and the opportunity to customize the driven vehicle on enjoyment of a console driving game, as mediated by transportation and challenge-skill balance. The role of presence is also probed, with results suggesting no direct link to enjoyment.     

Consequences of prosocial and antisocial behavior for the recipient

Statement of problemAlthough studies have examined antecedents of prosocial and antisocial behaviors in sport, little is known about the potential consequences of these behaviors for the recipient. In this research, we examined: (a) whether teammate prosocial and antisocial behaviors are related to athletes’ effort, performance, enjoyment and anger during a match and the mediating role of enjoyment and anger (Studies 1 and 2); and (b) whether prosocial and antisocial behaviors are related to commitment to play for one’s team and whether enjoyment and performance mediate these relationships (Study 2).MethodRight after a game, football/soccer (N = 203; Study 1) and basketball (N = 281; Study 2) players completed a multi-section questionnaire measuring the aforementioned variables.ResultsProsocial teammate behavior was positively related to effort, performance, and enjoyment, and enjoyment mediated the relationship between prosocial teammate behavior and effort and performance; prosocial teammate behavior was also positively related to commitment directly and indirectly through enjoyment and performance. Antisocial teammate behavior was positively related to anger and negatively related to effort and performance. Anger and performance mediated the effects of antisocial teammate behavior on effort and commitment, respectively.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate the importance of acting prosocially and not acting antisocially toward one’s teammates and have implications for enjoyment, effort, performance, and commitment in sport.     

Jealousy in response to online and offline infidelity: the role of sex and sexual orientation

The goal of the present study was to examine the emotional content and intensity of jealousy in response to different types of infidelity (both online and offline unfaithful partner behaviors) among Dutch heterosexuals (n = 191) and homosexuals (n = 121). Based on previous research (Dijkstra, Barelds & Groothof, 2010), participants were presented with ten jealousy‐evoking situations following which the intensity of two different emotional aspects of jealousy was assessed (betrayal/anger and threat). Results showed that scenarios describing a partner having sex with someone else or falling in love with someone else primarily evoked betrayal/anger‐related jealousy, whereas scenarios describing an emotional connection between a partner and someone else primarily evoked threat‐related jealousy. In addition, women experienced more jealousy than men in response to scenarios in which a partner engaged in potentially extra‐dyadic online (but not offline) behaviors. Finally, compared to same‐sex heterosexuals, homosexuals, both male and female, responded with less intense jealousy to scenarios describing a partner having sex with someone else. Implications for the treatment of (internet) infidelity are discussed.