Psychological Tests Don't Think: An Appreciation of Schafer's Psychoanalytic Interpretation In Rorschach Testing

Roy Schafer 's Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing has, for nearly 40 years, represented a hallmark of psychodynamically informed psychological assessment. In this article, Schafer's contribution is reviewed in light of recent contributions to the Rorschach literature. Following a summary of the main sections of the work, Schafer's approach to the Rorschach is critically re-examined from the perspective of modem assessment practice. Differences between the epistemological bases of psychoanalytic and empirical methods of Rorschach interpretation are highlighted, and the prospects for an integration of these two approaches are considered. It is concluded that Schafer's contribution remains as fresh today as when written 40 years ago.     

The Empirical Foundations of Psychoanalytic Approaches to Psychological Testing

The view that psychoanalytic approaches to psychological testing lack empirical foundations is disputed by systematically examining the ways in which psychoanalytic theory expands the sources of data available to the psychological tester at each step in the assessment process. The contention is made that it is unscientific to restrict the concept of what constitutes scientific rigor to formal experimentation with statistical analysis.     

The Impact of Theory on Psychological Testing: How Psychoanalytic Theory Makes Diagnostic Testing More Enjoyable and Rewarding

The psychometric properties of three scales of alexithymia were examined in a sample of 187 female undergraduates. The Shalling Sifneos Personality State (SSPS) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory (MMPI) Alexithymia scale had little internal consistency. The scored archetypal test with nine elements (SAT) had very low interrater reliability. As predicted, the three measures were not significantly related to one another and the SSPS had a more clearly defined factor structure than the MMPI scale. The MMPI and SSPS scales were differentially related to measures of symptomatology but were similarly related to extraversion, absorption, and SAT scores. Of the three scales, the SSPS appeared to have the highest content validity. The results suggest that alexithymia is not a unitary construct and that its reification as such may be premature.     

Human responses in assessing object relations subscales of the Psychoanalytic Rorschach Profile

The Rorschach test is often used to assess object relations. This research examined whether human responses are necessary for a valid assessment.     

The Integration of Determinants and Content in Rorschach Interpretation

Millon has presented a grand and rich theory of personality disorder. Fundamental to this theory are three polarity dimensions (active-passive, pleasure-pain, and self-other) from which the personality disorders are said to be derived. This article reviews these polarity dimensions with respect to their conceptual relation with the personality disorder nomenclature, their assessment, and their empirical support.     

Interpretation of white space responses in children's Rorschach protocols

While most texts continue to assert that the Rorschach white space response (S) indicates hostility and oppositionality, several studies suggest that such responses are more accurately reflective of cognitive differentiation and autonomous strivings. In addition, there are no studies which have systematically explored the significance of S responses in children's protocols. To shed light on these issues, 47 children (7 to 13 yr.) were administered the Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test, and the WISC-R, while their parents completed a behavioral checklist. Subjects with high S-response, independent of age, IQ, or perceptual accuracy, used the whole blot more often than those who made less frequent use of white space. They also had higher frequencies of shading determinants and blends and used more content categories. These results were interpreted as suggesting a tendency for subjects showing high S-response to construe the world in more complex terms. No differences were found between subjects high and low on S-response on either behavioral ratings or projective indices of hostility or negativism.     

Rorschach Assessment of Psychological Functioning in Sexually Abused Girls

We measured psychological functioning in a group of 79 Black females between the ages of 5 and 16 and a comparison group of nonabused girls using the Rorschach. In addition to Exner's (1985) Comprehensive System, the Elizur (1949) Rorschach Content Test Scale (RCT), the Mutuality of Autonomy Scale (MOA; Urist, 1977, Urist & Shill, 1982), and the Barrier and Penetration Scales (Fisher & Cleveland, 1968) were used. Sexually abused girls were found to show more disturbed thinking, to experience a higher level of stress relative to their adaptive abilities, to describe human relationships more negatively, and to show more preoccupation with sexuality than the comparison group. The distress experienced by the victimized children was more related to internal mediating variables then to abuse characteristics. Sexually abused girls who are cognitively and emotionally active also experienced high levels of distress compared to abused girls who are psychologically constricted.     

Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Superego Functioning Following CS Readministration Procedures: Case Illustration

The Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 2003) has specific procedures to address brief Rorschach protocols when the first administration yields fewer than 14 responses. These procedures involve the assessor's asking the client to retake the test by providing more responses on the second administration than the first administration. The request carries with it an implicit criticism of the client's initial effort and a mandate to improve performance on retake. The retake request, with its ambiguously worded demand for improved performance, engages the client's superego (i.e., the client feels judged) and makes it possible to study superego manifestations (e.g., guilt, shame) on the Rorschach test, using a model of (a) brief first record, (b) retake directive, and (c) second administration. We present a case that illustrates a clinical strategy, modeled on a psychoanalytic understanding of the CS retake procedure, for studying the client's superego functioning under retest conditions.     

People don't exercise because they can't think of reasons to exercise: an examination of causal reasoning within the Transtheoretical Model

This study compared the accessibility of the pros (advantages) and cons (disadvantages) of exercise in a group of non-exercisers and regular exercisers, using the Transtheoretical Model of behaviour change as a theoretical framework. Pre-contemplators (n?=?18), and maintainers (n?=?25), were asked to generate a list of 'advantages to taking part in exercise' (pro reasons), and a list of 'disadvantages to taking part in exercise' (con reasons). The time to generate their first item was recorded as well as the total number of items generated within 60?s. The results showed that pre-contemplators provided more con reasons relative to pro reasons; and maintainers provided more pro reasons relative to con reasons for exercise. Pre-contemplators were also quicker to provide their first con reason, relative to their first pro reason, but there was no difference in pro and con latencies in the maintainers. It was concluded that one reason pre-contemplation individuals do not participate in regular exercise may be because they cannot think of reasons to exercise.     

Transference in Psychological Testing

Transference as a theoretical construct within the conceptual framework of psychoanalysis is examined, pointing out the limitations this imposes on its use. After discussing why the term transference cannot be applied to psychological testing, the ways in which it has been misused are presented. The concept of externalization is introduced as an important means of understanding the structural dynamics of patients being tested, and its relevance to transference is stressed.     

精神分析视角下网络游戏迷恋者的心理景观

网络游戏的虚拟特性为网络游戏迷恋者营造了一个虚拟世界,使其可以在此空间舞台上轻易地释放本我,展现现实生活中各种不被允许被压抑到潜意识的事件,从而获得生理和心理上的快感.从精神分析的视角来分析网络游戏迷恋者的心理景观.以期从根源上去探究迷恋者的迷恋症结,为治疗青少年网络游戏迷恋提供一个新的理论视角.     

I don't think that's what really happened: the effect of cross-examination on the accuracy of children's reports

In the courtroom, child witnesses must undergo cross-examination. Prior research has shown that children change their original testimony under cross-examination, but the effect of these changes on the accuracy of children's testimony is unknown. The authors examined the effect of cross-examination on the accuracy of 5- and 6-year-old children's (N=46) reports of a contrived event. Consistent with prior research, children made changes to their original responses during cross-examination. Furthermore, these changes occurred irrespective of original accuracy. Finally, prior exposure to misleading information did not affect children's responses to cross-examination. Even children with no prior exposure to misinformation altered their original responses, decreasing their ultimate levels of accuracy. These findings demonstrate that cross-examination style questioning is inappropriate for young children.     

Learning disabilities: an appraisal of Rorschach response patterns

Recent developments with the Rorschach invite research concerning cognitive and coping styles of learning disabled students. This study, based on an N of 25 (12 learning disabled and 13 controls), was designed to assess group differences in perceptual accuracy, self-concept, and reactivity. Analysis showed that learning disabled students represent a diverse population for which highly individualized understanding is required if appropriate schooling strategies are to be devised. Such students, compared with controls, were more inclined to have lower self-confidence, to be more reactive, to avoid emotionally-laden stimuli, to manifest a higher proportion of responses involving perceptual inaccuracies, and to be less spontaneous and less inclined to take risks. Some curricular implications of the findings are discussed.     

文化与人格:心理人类学的解释

在众多影响人格形成和发展的因素中,文化是至关重要的一个因素,对文化影响人格的系统研究已有近一个世纪的历程。本文通过国内外这一研究课题的发展背景及研究现状梳理,并以此为基础进而说明人格特点的文化因素影响,对今后的研究进行探讨。     

The Vagaries of Psychoanalytic Interpretation: An Investigation into the Causes of the Consensus Problem in Psychoanalysis

Though the psychoanalytic method of interpretation is seen by psychoanalysts as a reliable scientific tool for investigating the unconscious mind, its reputation has long been marred by what’s known as the consensus problem: where different analysts fail to reach agreement when they interpret the same phenomena. This has long been thought, by both practitioners and observers of psychoanalysis, to undermine its claim to scientific status. The causes of this problem, however, are dimly understood. In this paper I attempt to illuminate one important cause of the consensus problem by investigating the role which reliance on ‘associative evidence’ has in generating consensus failures. Various options for overcoming the difficulties with this form of clinical evidence are then examined. It is argued that these problems can be mitigated by the notion of overall associative fit, though they are exacerbated by certain loose standards used for what counts as acceptable associative evidence. The possibility of using more rigorous standards is discussed.