Identity motives underlying desired and feared possible future selves

Desired and feared possible future selves are important motivators of behavior and provide a temporal context for self-evaluation. Yet little research has examined why people desire some possible selves and fear others. In two studies, we tested the reflection of identity motives for self-esteem, efficacy, meaning, continuity, belonging, and distinctiveness in people's desired and feared possible future selves and in their possible future identity structures. As predicted, participants desired especially those possible futures in which motives for self-esteem, efficacy, meaning, and continuity would be satisfied, and they feared especially those in which the same four motives and, marginally, the motive for distinctiveness would be frustrated. Analyses supported an indirect path from belonging via self-esteem to desire and fear. Desired and feared possible future selves reflect potential satisfaction and frustration of these identity motives.     

Mortality salience and the desire for offspring

Research on terror management theory (TMT) illustrates that following mortality salience (MS) people defend their cultural worldviews and bolster self-esteem to transcend death. Recently, research additionally showed that MS increased self-reports of the number of children desired in Dutch men but not in Dutch women. We conducted three studies to further investigate the role of desire for offspring in terror management. In Study 1, we conceptually replicated previous findings for Germany and found increased desire for offspring following MS in both men and women. Extending prior research Study 2 revealed that following MS not only was the accessibility of death-related thoughts increased, but also the accessibility of thoughts related to offspring. Finally, Study 3 suggested that the MS effect on ingroup bias was eliminated under conditions of offspring salience. Relating these findings to TMT, anticipated or actual offspring is discussed as a buffer against existential anxiety.     

Perceptions of unconditional and conditional worth among college students

Self-esteem scales tend to represent conditional perceptions of self-esteem. The Worth Index has been previously validated as an effective measure for identifying both conditional and unconditional perceptions of worth. We administered the Worth Index to 1,161 college-aged students at Brigham Young University to assess their current perceptions of unconditional and conditional worth. Both men and women agreed more strongly with items involving unconditional worth than conditional worth. A negative correlation was found between ratings of unconditional and conditional worth. Women had lower unconditional worth scores than men, which was related to being more likely to wish they were someone else, desire to have a better body, and to being concerned about weight. Agreement with two overview measures of self-esteem involving a "good" sense of self and stability of self-esteem was positively associated with agreement on statements about unconditional worth. This research shows the importance of incorporating unconditional worth into self-esteem measures.     

消费者触摸渴望的形成机制解析——基于认知体验视角

对消费者触摸渴望形成机制的探讨, 有利于线上和线下企业制定如何补偿和满足消费者触摸渴望的营销战略。迄今, 关于消费者触摸渴望形成机制的探讨主要从信息加工视角、动机视角、决策视角以及先天观视角着手。但这些视角均不能解释为何同一消费者在不同认知体验下在触摸行为反应上的差异。本文提出个人控制受威胁感这一认知体验是消费者触摸渴望形成的前因变量。具体而言, 本文发现, 个人控制受威胁感这一负性认知体验会导致消费者触摸渴望的增加, 内在机制是为了满足对环境的控制需求(实验1, 2)。本文进一步发现, 当强化消费者的自我价值后, 他们对环境的控制需求下降了, 因此消费者的触摸渴望将不再受个人控制受威胁感的影响(实验3)。最后, 本文还发现, 强化自我价值对个人控制受威胁感与消费者触摸渴望间关系的调节作用仅在高自尊者(vs.低自尊者)身上出现(实验4)。论文结尾讨论了本文所关注的个人控制受威胁感这一认知体验视角对已有触觉研究、已有个人控制感研究等的理论贡献。     

Do people need self-esteem? Comment on Pyszczynski et al. (2004)

In spite of impressive empirical evidence consistent with aspects of terror management theory (TMT) reviewed by T. Pyszczynski, J. Greenberg, S. Solomon, J. Arndt, and J. Schimel (2004), several fundamental assumptions of the theory remain untested or lack support. Specifically, Pyszczynski et al. (2004) have not demonstrated that (a) people need self-esteem, (b) pursuing self-esteem is an effective means for reducing anxiety, (c) pursuing self-esteem helps people achieve their important goals, (d) having or pursuing self-esteem is the only way to deal with anxiety to achieve important goals, or (e) death is the real issue driving the pursuit of self-esteem. The authors suggest there is a different paradigm for thinking about death, one in which awareness of one's mortality serves as a precious reminder of the limited time one has to accomplish one's most important goals. All of these questions can be addressed with empirical research.     

Is It Me or Is It Mine? Body-self Integration as a Function of Self-esteem,Body-esteem,and Mortality Salience

This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into individuals' conceptualizations of self. We hypothesized that body-self integration would vary as a function of level of general self-esteem, specific self-evaluations for the body, and also mortality salience due to existential implications of the physical body's certainty of eventual death. In a neutral condition (no mortality reminder), individuals with high self-esteem were found to hold conceptualizations of the self that include the body to the extent that they had high body self-esteem, whereas individuals low in self-esteem did not exhibit these self-serving body-self representations. In addition, mortality salience led to a distancing of the self from the body, but only for people lacking the protection provided by high general or body-specific self-esteem. Our discussion focused on individual difference in low and high self-esteem and implications of bodily threats to conceptualizations for self.     

The contribution of peer and media influences to the development of body satisfaction and self-esteem in young girls: a prospective study

This study aimed to prospectively examine the role of peer and media influences in the development of body satisfaction (incorporating the desire for thinness and satisfaction with appearance) in young girls, as well as the relationship between body satisfaction and self-esteem. A sample of 97 girls 5-8 years of age completed individual interviews at Time 1 and 1 year later at Time 2. Linear panel analyses found that Time 1 perception of peers' desire for thinness was temporally antecedent to girls' desire for thinness, appearance satisfaction, and self-esteem 1 year later. In addition, the watching of appearance-focused television programs was temporally antecedent to appearance satisfaction. Finally, girls' desire for thinness was found to temporally precede low self-esteem. Thus, as early as school entry, girls appear to already live in a culture in which peers and the media transmit the thin ideal in a way that negatively influences the development of body image and self-esteem.     

Motivated Compliance With Bases of Social Power

This contribution examines the degree of compliance with hard and soft power bases ( Raven, Schwarzwald, & Koslowsky, 1998 ) as a function of target motivational and personal orientations. Four field studies were conducted in different European organizations where intrinsic–extrinsic motivational orientations, desire for control, self-presentational styles, and self-esteem were respectively considered as antecedents of employees' compliance with their supervisors' power strategies. Results show that compliance with soft power strategies is positively related to intrinsic motivation, desire for control, "getting-ahead" style, and self-esteem; and negatively related to the "getting-along" style. Compliance with hard power strategies is positively related to extrinsic motivation and to the getting-along style, but negatively related to intrinsic motivation, desire for control, and self-esteem.     

Drinking to regulate negative romantic relationship interactions: The moderating role of self-esteem

A 30-day diary study examined the relations among trait self-esteem, negative romantic relationship interactions, and alcohol consumption. Multilevel analyses revealed that people with low trait self-esteem (compared with people with high trait self-esteem) drank more on days when they experienced more negative relationship interactions with their romantic partners. In addition, daily increases in state self-esteem buffered people with low trait self-esteem from the desire to drink in response to negative romantic relationship interactions. In contrast, participants with high and low self-esteem both decreased their drinking in response to negative non-romantic relationship events, but people with low self-esteem decreased their drinking less. These findings suggest that people with low trait self-esteem may drink as a way to regulate unfulfilled needs for acceptance.     

Social identity and intergroup evaluative bias: Realistic categories and domain specific self-esteem in a conflict setting

Social identity theory predicts a link between self-esteem and intergroup discrimination. Previous research has failed to find consistent support for this prediction. Much of this research has, however, been beset by a number of methodological shortcomings. These shortcomings may have hindered attempts to discern a consistent relationship between self-esteem and intergroup discrimination. The current investigation sought to overcome these difficulties by utilizing, realistic groups, multidimensional measures of self-esteem and testing self-esteem before and after the manifestation of intergroup evaluative bias. The results demonstrate that when the members of realistic groups engage in evaluative intergroup bias, the esteem in which they hold specific self-images is enhanced. Of the 13 facets of self-esteem delineated by the instrument used in the present study significant increases were found in six particular domains: honesty, academic ability, verbal ability, physical appearance, religion and parental relations. Global self-esteem was unaffected by the display of bias. These findings emphasize the importance of using realistic groups and domain specific self-esteem when attempting to assess the role of self-esteem in intergroup discrimination.     

The effects of personal and collective mortality salience on individualism: Comparing Australians and Japanese with higher and lower self-esteem

The cross-cultural generality of terror management theory was examined in Australia and Japan. Based on previous research suggesting that individualism is stronger in Australia than in Japan, mortality salience was predicted to enhance individualism in Australia, but to reduce it in Japan. The results supported this prediction. Consistent with the theory, the cultural pattern of worldview defense was found only among Australians and Japanese with low self-esteem. We also found preliminary evidence that collective mortality (death of one’s in-group) has a greater impact than personal mortality (personal death) in Japan. Although the cultural worldview and self-esteem may serve terror management functions in both cultures, there may be differences between cultures in the type of mortality that produces the greatest levels of anxiety and the manner in which a given worldview is used to cope with anxiety about mortality.     

IN DEFENSE OF THE BODY: THE EFFECT OF MORTALITY SALIENCE ON FEMALE BODY OBJECTIFICATION

Previous research has illustrated the negative psychological consequences of female body objectification. The present study explores how female body objectification may serve as a defense against unconscious existential fears. Drawing from terror management theory, an experiment was designed to test the potential functionality of female body objectification. Men and women were primed to think about either their own mortality or an aversive control topic, and levels of body objectification were then assessed for both self- and other (women)-objectification. Findings supported the hypothesis that priming mortality would increase both self- and other-objectification among women, and self-objectification among those who derive self-esteem from their body. Implications for this research are discussed.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INTERNAL BELIEFS ABOUT WEIGHT AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS SELF AND OTHERS

Previous research has found that people with an internal weight locus of control (beliefs in self-control over weight) are more likely to join and stay in weight-loss programs and have higher self-esteem than those who have an external locus of control (e.g., belief that weight is due to luck, genes). There has been no research on how weight locus of control affects the self-esteem of people who are not average weight or not satisfied with their weight. The present study predicted that for people who are overweight, weight locus of control would be negatively related to self-esteem. The results confirmed this interaction between weight locus of control and weight on self-esteem for women, but not for men. The second prediction was that internal weight locus of control would have negative social consequences in terms of greater negative stereotyping of obese people, and this was also confirmed for women. Because weight loss is rarely permanent, it would seem important to change people's attitudes about the lack of control that they (and others) have over body weight.     

Self-knowledge defenses to self-threats

We examined whether people use both shifts in the spontaneous self-concept (self-knowledge content) and in self-concept clarity (self-knowledge structure) to defend against salient self-threats, and identified relevant moderators of this process. In Study 1, women emphasized relational self-aspects in response to mortality salience, compared to men. In Study 2, high self-esteem individuals showed more polarized self-knowledge after mortality salience, while in Study 3 they became faster in their self-categorizations when faced with uncertainty, and more consistent and faster in their self-categorizations when faced with isolation, relative to those with low self-esteem. In the discussion, we focus on how these outcomes can be interpreted as meaning maintenance, clarify the role of self-esteem, and offer directions for future research.     

外强中瘠、虚饰以财?自我威胁情境下异质性高自尊与物质主义的关系

通过3个研究探讨异质性高自尊与物质主义的关系, 以及在自我威胁情境下异质性高自尊与物质主义的关系是否会发生变化。研究1采用问卷法考察异质性高自尊与物质主义的相关关系, 结果发现, 安全高自尊者的物质主义显著低于脆弱高自尊者; 研究2通过要求不同高自尊者与吸引力高/低的同性进行对比操纵自我威胁, 然后测量外显物质主义, 结果发现, 在吸引力威胁情境下, 安全高自尊者的外显物质主义显著低于脆弱高自尊者的外显物质主义; 研究3通过虚拟的智力测验排名反馈操纵自我威胁, 然后测量内隐物质主义。结果发现, 在智力威胁情境下, 安全高自尊者的内隐物质主义显著低于脆弱高自尊者的内隐物质主义。据此可认为, 异质性高自尊既是解开高自尊与物质主义矛盾关系的切入点, 也是瓦解自我威胁与物质主义正向关系的突破口。     

The costly pursuit of self-esteem

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.     

Play it safe or go for the gold? A terror management perspective on self-enhancement and self-protective motives in risky decision making

Terror management theory (TMT) posits that bolstering self-esteem buffers mortality concerns; accordingly, in past research, heightening mortality salience (MS) increases self-enhancement. However, risky self-esteem-relevant decisions often present a choice between enhancing self-esteem by striving for excellence and protecting self-esteem by avoiding potential failure. Which strategy is preferred under MS? Combining TMT with insights from Steele, Spencer, and Lynch's (1993) resource model, the authors hypothesized and found that MS leads high, but not low, self-esteem participants faced with a risky decision to pursue opportunities for excellence despite substantial risk of failure (Studies 1 and 2); in Study 3, using a more impactful decision, this effect was replicated and it was furthermore found that mortality-salient low-self-esteem participants become more risk-averse. Furthermore, in Study 2, a self-affirmation prime, previously shown to reduce MS-induced defenses, eliminated the self-enhancement effect among high-self-esteem participants. Implications for understanding self-esteem, TMT, and risky decision making are briefly discussed.     

Managing the death of close others: Evidence of higher valuing of ingroup identity in young adults who have experienced the death of a close other

The death of a close other (DOCO) is perhaps the most difficult experience that people endure. According to terror management theory (TMT), people manage the potentially terrorizing awareness of their mortality by immersing in cultural worldviews that allow them to feel like valuable members of a meaningful universe who may have some existence or trace after death. Although TMT has potential implications for understanding how people cope with DOCO, few studies have examined this possibility. We report results from four studies showing that, in line with TMT, students who experienced DOCO reported stronger valuing of their identification with their in-groups, which in turn was associated with higher levels of self-esteem. These findings shed new light on the social-psychological dynamics of DOCO.     

The protective identity: Evidence that mortality salience heightens the clarity and coherence of the self-concept

Research guided by terror management theory has shown that self-esteem provides a buffer against mortality concerns. The current research extends the theory to examine whether clarity and coherence in the structure of the self-concept serve a terror management function independent of enhancing self-esteem. Specifically, five studies tested whether mortality salience (MS) heightens diverse tendencies to clarify and integrate self-relevant knowledge, especially in individuals predisposed to seek structured knowledge. MS led high, but not low, structure-seeking participants to prefer coherent (Study 1) clearly-defined (Study 2), and simply organized (Study 3) conceptions of their personal characteristics. Also, MS led high structure-seeking participants to prefer causal coherence in recent experience (Study 4) and meaningful connections between past events and their current self (Study 5). Supporting the specificity of these effects on self-concept structuring, MS increased self-enhancement in Studies 1, 4, and 5 but these effects were not moderated by preference for structured knowledge.