Suicide surveillance in the U.S. Military--reporting and classification biases in rate calculations

The military has a well-defined population with suicide prevention programs that have been recognized as possible models for civilian suicide prevention efforts. Monitoring prevention programs requires accurate reporting. In civilian settings, several studies have confirmed problems in the reporting and classification of suicides. This analysis evaluated whether suicides were underreported or misclassified under accident or undetermined manner of death in the military system. We reviewed all 1998 and 1999 military deaths using official death reports and compared these data with additional sources, most importantly the DoD Medical Mortality Registry. We assessed for evidence of expressed suicidal intent and past psychiatric history among deaths classified as undetermined and accidents due to gunshot, overdose, drowning, falls, or asphyxia. Using sources other than official records, we found 17% more suicides than were reported, and an additional 4% of deaths that were suspicious for suicide. This study suggests that reporting and classification errors may account for 21% additional suicides in the military. These findings are comparable to rates seen in civilian studies and add to the literature regarding the problems inherent in using administrative death classification data for medical surveillance purposes.     

Are Suicide Note Writers Representative of All Suicides? Analysis of the National Violent Death Reporting System

While suicide notes can offer insights into the causes of suicide and clues for prevention, there is disagreement regarding the degree to which note leavers are representative of the general population of suicides. Previous relevant research on the United States is marked by a series of limitations: small local samples, an over focus on demographic constructs, and lack of multivariable analysis. This study uses a large national sample, a wide range of predictor variables, and multivariable statistical techniques to estimate more reliable similarities and differences between note leavers and other suicides. All data are taken from the National Violent Death Reporting System, which covers 17 states. A total of 9,048 note writers were compared to 21,522 other suicides in terms of 39 variables. In both bivariable (32/39 variables) and multivariable analyses (30/39 variables), note leavers differed from other suicides in most demographic variables, stressful life events, psychiatric issues, and methods of suicide. The national evidence suggests that caution be exercised in generalizing patterns found among writers of suicide notes to suicides in general. This is the first analysis of suicide notes using US data on the issue.     

To What Extent Does the Reporting Behavior of the Media Regarding a Celebrity Suicide Influence Subsequent Suicides in South Korea?

This study investigated the nature of media coverage of a national entertainer's suicide and its impact on subsequent suicides. After the celebrity suicide, the number of suicide‐related articles reported surged around 80 times in the week after the suicide compared with the week prior. Many articles (37.1%) violated several critical items on the World Health Organization suicide reporting guidelines, like containing a detailed suicide method. Most gender and age subgroups were at significantly higher risk of suicide during the 4 weeks after the celebrity suicide. Results imply that massive and noncompliant media coverage of a celebrity suicide can cause a large‐scale copycat effect.     

Campus Student Suicide Rates: Fact or Artifact?

A review of all English-language studies (14 foreign and 17 American) on campus student suicides was undertaken. Only studies reporting original data and containing sufficient demographic information to compute standard mortality rates (SMR) or crude suicide rates were analyzed and organized into single-site studies. Only 4 single-site studies had a higher suicide rate than the comparable populations. Multiple-site collaborative studies done in the United States since 1960 strongly suggest a campus student suicide rate significantly less than in the matched control population. However, deficiencies in case finding, case definition, sampling bias, and statistical techniques may place these conclusions in doubt. The author outlines research methods that might be applied to future multiple-site studies to resolve questions related to late adolescent and young adult suicidal behavior on campus and in other similar educational settings.     

Say something nice: A meta-analytic review of peer reporting interventions

Peer reporting interventions (i.e., Positive Peer Reporting and tootling) are commonly used peer-mediated interventions in schools. These interventions involve training students to make reports about peers' prosocial behaviors, whether in oral or written form. Although peer reporting interventions have been included in meta-analyses of group contingencies, this study is the first meta-analytic review of single-case research focusing exclusively on peer reporting interventions. The literature search and application of inclusion criteria yielded 21 studies examining the impact of a peer reporting intervention on student behavior compared to baseline conditions. All studies used single-case experimental designs including at least three demonstrations of an effect and at least three data points per phase. Several aspects of studies, participants, and interventions were coded. Log response ratios and Tau were calculated as effect size estimates. Effect size estimates were synthesized in a multi-level meta-analysis with random effects for (a) studies and (b) cases within studies. Overall results indicated peer reporting interventions had a non-zero and positive impact on student outcomes. This was also true when data were subset by outcome (i.e., disruptive behavior, academically engaged behavior, and social behavior). Results were suggestive of more between- than within-study variability. Moderator analyses were conducted to identify aspects of studies, participants, or peer reporting interventions associated with differential effectiveness. Moderator analyses suggested published studies were associated with higher effect sizes than unpublished studies (i.e., theses/dissertations). This meta-analysis suggests peer reporting interventions are effective in improving student behavior compared to baseline conditions. Implications and directions for future investigation are discussed.     

San Diego suicide study: comparison of gay to straight males

Previous large studies of completed suicides have not considered sexual orientation in their data analyses. In this study, data from the known homosexual subpopulation (13 males, aged 21-42) in a series of 283 suicides were examined. They were compared with all other aged male suicides 21-42 (n = 106). Both groups showed considerable substance abuse plus a variety of other psychiatric diagnoses. Both also had a high frequency of relationship difficulties near the time of death. Gays who committed suicide did not have a history of more police trouble and were no more likely to be living alone than the comparison group. They did not have more prior suicide attempts or previous psychiatric treatment. We conclude that, among the factors examined here, there appears to be little difference between gay and heterosexual male suicides.     

The Big Ten Student Suicide Study: A 10-Year Study of Suicides on Midwestern University Campuses

The Big Ten Student Suicide Study was undertaken from 1980–1990 to determine the suicide rates on Big Ten University campuses. The study design attempted to address many of the statistical and epidemiological flaws identified in previous studies of campus student suicides. The 10-year study collected demographic and correlational data on 261 suicides of registered students at 12 midwestern campuses. The largest number of suicides for both males and females were in the 20–24-year-old age group (46%), and amongst graduate students (32%). The overall student suicide rate of 7.5/100,000 is one half of the computed national suicide rate (15.0/100,000) for a matched sample by age, gender, and race. Despite the overall lower suicide rate, the analyses revealed that students 25 and over have a significantly higher risk than younger students. Although women have rates roughly half those of men throughout their undergraduate years, graduate women have rates not significantly different from their male counterparts (graduate women 9.1/100,000 and graduate men 11.6/100,000).     

Impact of the 1998 football World Cup on suicide rates in France: results from the national death registry

Our objective was to determine whether the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup in 1998 had a short-term impact on the number of suicides in France. Exhaustive individual daily data on suicides from 1979 to 2006 were obtained from the French epidemiological center on the medical causes of death (CepiDC-INSERM; France). These data were analyzed using the seasonal ARIMA model. The overall effect of the World Cup was tested together with potential specific impact on days following the French team games. Between 11th June and 11th July, a significant decline of 95 suicides was observed (-10.3%), this effect being the strongest among men and people aged between 30 and 44. A significant decrease was also observed for the days following French team games (-19.9%). Our results are in favor of an effect of nationwide sport events on suicidal behaviors and are consistent with other studies. Many of the theories explaining the relationship between sports and suicide are related to sense of belongingness and social integration, highlighting the importance of social link reinforcement in suicide prevention.     

The Role of Rumination in Predicting Seasonality

The impact of the changing seasons on mood and behavior (i.e., seasonality) has long been of interest to researchers. Recently, researchers have begun to look beyond biological explanations to investigate psychological variables that may play a role in the development of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and subsyndromal (S-SAD) levels of seasonality. Rumination, in particular, has received initial support as a process that predicts more severe levels of winter depression. In the first study, we assessed the effects of rumination, current weather conditions, current level of depression, and attitudes toward weather conditions as predictors of seasonality. In addition to weather conditions, weather attitudes, and current depression, rumination emerged as a significant predictor of seasonality in females but not for males. In the second study, we followed individuals categorized as being high (S-SAD) and low in seasonality over time and assessed for depression at Time 1 and Time 2. Rumination, in addition to current weather conditions and weather attitudes, emerged as a significant predictor of depression for females in the S-SAD group. The results of these studies provide support for the role of rumination in seasonal depression, particularly for females. This type of research may contribute to attempts to better explain gender differences in seasonal depression.     

Sex as Reported in a Recent Sample of Psychological Research

This study is a follow up on the study done by Sara Schwabacher (1972). All the articles in this study were taken from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1974, volume 30, and were reviewed for sex of subjects, type of conclusions drawn, and whether sex was mentioned in the abstract, introduction, or methods section. These results were compared to the Schwabacher study in order to discover if the conditions noted in her study continue to prevail, or whether there has been a change in scientific sampling and reporting procedures.
Contrary to the previous study, the percentage of all male studies show a sharp drop of 15% while all female studies rose 22%. When comparing the amount of single sex studies overgeneralized, all-male studies remained proportionately the same, whereas overgeneralized all-female studies showed an increase of 35.5%. In addition more both-sex articles checked for sex differences than previously reported. The authors discuss the results in relation to the women's movement and scientific decision making. Three suggestions for scientific reporting and procedures are made.     

追踪研究中缺失数据处理方法及应用现状分析

追踪研究中普遍存在缺失数据, 缺失数据处理方法的选择影响统计推断的精度及研究结果的有效性。首先, 阐述缺失机制及判断方法, 比较追踪研究中主要的缺失数据处理方法的特点、及实际应用中的缺失处理方法的选择和软件实现。其次, 对国内心理学中92篇追踪研究文献进行分析, 发现有59篇(64.13%)报告不同程度缺失, 其中仅39篇报告了处理方法且均为删除法。未来研究应深入探讨现有缺失数据处理方法的有效性, 进一步规范应用研究中缺失数据的处理。     

The newsworthiness of suicide

There is a paucity of studies examining which suicides are considered news-worthy. By combining data on media reports of individuals' suicides with routinely collected suicide data, it was found that 1% of Australian suicides were reported over a 1-year period. There was evidence of over-reporting of suicides by older people and females, and those involving dramatic methods. Reported suicides fell into three groups: suicides reported in a broader context; suicides by celebrities; and suicides involving unusual circumstances/methods. The data suggest a need for media professionals and suicide experts to work together to balance newsworthiness against the risk of copycat behavior.     

The (mis)reporting of statistical results in psychology journals

In order to study the prevalence, nature (direction), and causes of reporting errors in psychology, we checked the consistency of reported test statistics, degrees of freedom, and p values in a random sample of high- and low-impact psychology journals. In a second study, we established the generality of reporting errors in a random sample of recent psychological articles. Our results, on the basis of 281 articles, indicate that around 18% of statistical results in the psychological literature are incorrectly reported. Inconsistencies were more common in low-impact journals than in high-impact journals. Moreover, around 15% of the articles contained at least one statistical conclusion that proved, upon recalculation, to be incorrect; that is, recalculation rendered the previously significant result insignificant, or vice versa. These errors were often in line with researchers’ expectations. We classified the most common errors and contacted authors to shed light on the origins of the errors.     

Practical Guide for Reporting Effect Size in Quantitative Research in the Journal of Counseling & Development

The purpose of this article is to assist researchers in meeting the requirement of reporting effect sizes in quantitative research studies submitted to the Journal of Counseling & Development. This requirement is detailed in the “Guidelines for Authors” included in this issue. The authors provide practical information on generating, reporting, and interpreting effect size estimates for various types of statistical analyses. Information is provided on the meaning of effect sizes within the larger knowledge base.     

Missing data: prevalence and reporting practices

Results are described for a survey assessing prevalence of missing data and reporting practices in studies with missing data in a random sample of empirical research journal articles from the PsychINFO database for the year 1999, two years prior to the publication of a special section on missing data in Psychological Methods. Analysis indicates missing data problems were found in about one-third of the studies. Further, analytical methods and reporting practices varied widely for studies with missing data. One may consider these results as baseline data to assess progress as reporting standards evolve for studies with missing data. Some potential reporting standards are discussed.     

The Werther effect and assisted suicide

In the course of a large epidemiological study in the region of Basle, Switzerland, from 1992 to 1996, a considerable rise in suicides assisted by the right-to-die society EXIT was uncovered after wide press coverage of an assisted double suicide of a prominent couple in that region in March 1995. Further investigation revealed that the rise of assisted suicides for a period of 2 years after the critical event was statistically significant compared to the 2 years previous to the double suicide. This was especially true for women older than 65 years. Hence, the almost enthusiastic kind of reporting about this event was apt to induce imitation suicides or a "Werther-effect."     

A Systematic Review of Propensity Score Methods in the Social Sciences

The use of propensity scores in psychological and educational research has been steadily increasing in the last 2 to 3 years. However, there are some common misconceptions about the use of different estimation techniques and conditioning choices in the context of propensity score analysis. In addition, reporting practices for propensity score analyses often lack important details that allow other researchers to confidently judge the appropriateness of reported analyses and potentially to replicate published findings. In this article we conduct a systematic literature review of a large number of published articles in major areas of social science that used propensity scores up until the fall of 2009. We identify common errors in estimation, conditioning, and reporting of propensity score analyses and suggest possible solutions.     

A review of patient outcomes in pharmacological studies from the psychiatric literature, 1966–1993

A literature search was conducted on studies of new drugs used with patients with schizophrenia reported by U.S. and non-U.S. researchers from 1966–1993, yielding 41 U.S., and a total of 24 other non-U.S. studies, among them 11 British studies. Results of the U.S. and non-U.S. studies were pooled separately and compared. Among several comparable conditions discussed, the lack of any data on suicides in the U.S. studies was observed. For a second statistical analysis of suicide rates ‘person-years’ were calculated to adjust for differing washout durations. The results obtained include findings that the percentage of patients relapsing in U.S. studies was slightly lower (37.9%) than in non-U.S. studies (46%); the percentage of patients dropping out in U.S. studies (10.5%) was higher than in non-U.S. studies (7.6%); known location of dropout patients in U.S. studies was 1.7%, compared to 2.6% in non-U.S. studies. The most interesting finding was that no suicides were reported in U.S. studies, compared to 0.6% of patients reported in British studies. Some U.S. studies used ‘challenge doses’, such as amphetamines or L-dopa; no non-U.S. studies reported their use. Compared to U.S. studies, those by non-U.S., and particularly British, researchers appeared to report adverse events in their studies. ‘Challenge’ drugs were not used; suicides were reported. It is estimated that the probability that no patients suicided who participated in the U.S. is small—one in 500.