Sex stereotypes in occupational choice: The case for college women

The choice of a male dominated occupation rather than a traditionally feminine one is the single occupational variable which meaningfully divides a class of women who were studied intensively over the 4 yr of college. Women who choose occupations which employ largely men differ predictably from women who select feminine occupations in terms of familial influence, work values, work experience, role model influence and some collegiate activities. The two groups do not differ appreciably in sociability experiences or in relationships with parents, so it cannot be argued that the work plans of the pioneer women stem from social isolation, rejection, or lack of appropriate feminine socialization.     

Automatic activation of Yellow Peril Asian American stereotypes: effects on social impression formation

The authors randomly assigned 69 undergraduates to 1 of 2 perceptual priming conditions involving 80-ms flash words presented on a computer screen to activate information processing outside of conscious awareness. In the high-prime condition, the authors exposed participants to stereotype words associated with the Yellow Peril view of Asian Americans. The authors exposed participants in a low-prime condition to neutral words. All participants then read a vignette and evaluated its protagonist on several social dimensions. Results indicated that the priming procedure effectively biased participant evaluation of the vignette target, but only on items closely linked to Asian Americans. Contrary to predictions, however, participants in the high-prime group rated the target less Asian than did their low-prime group counterparts, an apparent reversal of the expected priming effect. The authors discussed theoretical implications.     

Three weighting criteria in impression formation

When several items of information are combined to give an overall judgement, it is usually found that some kinds of item are given greater weight than others. This study examines the relations between three criteria which judges may use in deciding how to apportion these weights. The criteria of evaluative direction and extremity have of ten been studied within impression formation, while demonstrations of the influence of ambiguity have produced unclear findings. Simple models of the combination of these three criteria are shown to be inadequate and a more complex account is suggested. A study is reported in which divergence between the criteria of extremity and ambiguity results in a generally greater bias to negative. This effect is related to other studies of the influence of inconsistency, and range adjustment model of the judgement process is extended to take it into account.     

When stereotypes hurt: Three studies of penalties for sex-role reversals

Three studies that demonstrate penalties for sex-role reversals are reported. In each study, subjects evaluated men and women who behaved either in line with sex-role stereotypes or counter to them. The results show that popularity ratings and perceived psychological adjustment of both passive-dependent men and aggressive-assertive women were adversely affected. The findings are discussed in terms of their contribution to recent theories about women's achievement motivation.     

Children's perceptions of occupational sex stereotypes

Female and male children ranging in age from 21/2 to 8 years were asked to indicate for each of 10 occupations whether a male or a female adult would be most likely to engage in the occupation. Five traditionally male and five traditionally female occupations were presented in random orders. The results indicated that the children at each age level made a significant distinction between the two occupational groupings, with the extent of the distinction increasing with age level. There were no significant effects involving the sex of the children. The results were interpreted as indicating the learning of adult stereotypes concerning the sex appropriateness of occupations by children as young as 21/2; years old. The potential implications of this sex stereotype for actual career decisions and aspirations were discussed.The authors would like to express their appreciation to the principal, M. Brady Thomas, and the teachers at Hickory Grove Elementary School for their help during the study. The order of authorship was randomly determined.     

Sex stereotypes and responses to juvenile delinquency

On the basis of our current knowledge of sex stereotypes and their influence on judgments about women and men, two conflicting hypotheses about reactions to delinquent behavior by men and women, or by boys and girls, can be put forward. First, because crime is mainly masculine, responsibility for criminal behavior will be more strongly attributed to a boy's nature than to a girl's, thereby leading to more severe punishment for boys. Second, deviations from a stereotype lead to negative evaluations, and thus should lead to harsher punishment for girls. The first study described, based on a field experiment with 709 adolescent and 403 adult subjects, was conducted to determine whether different sanctions were applied to boys and girls who engaged in identical delinquent behavior. The results show that for boys, more severe punishment was preferred for aggressive behavior, and for girls, more punishment for noncriminal delinquent behavior. In a second study (N=43), it was hypothesized that these differences in sanctioning corresponded with the degree of perceived masculinity of the delinquent behavior. This hypothesis was confirmed. A model shows how sex stereotypes about delinquent behavior lead to sex-related difference in attributions, which in turn lead to differences in punishment.     

Nicknames and sex role stereotypes

Since nicknames are a very fluid component of language, they become a useful tool for revealing current sex role stereotypes. A study of 380 nicknames collected from 175 young women and men ages 14–19 shows that males assign most nicknames and males receive more names based on surnames; also, connotations of strength, largeness, hardness, and maturity are typical of male nicknames. For female nicknames, physical attributes are more important, and connotations are typically of beauty, pleasantness, kindness, and goodness. Nicknames do not reflect much difference in activity, however, a quality that in earlier studies is associated predominantly with males.     

Sex stereotypes: Issues of change in the 1970s

A sample of 128 college males and females rated a typical and desirable man or woman on 54 items taken from the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Comparisons of the ratings of a typical man versus a typical woman yielded significant differences (p<.01) on 53 of the 54 items. Thus, stereotypes of the sexes apparently remained strong during the 1970s. Comparisons of the ratings of a desirable man versus desirable woman yielded significant differences on only 12 of the 54 items. These results are interpreted as reflecting a difference between stereotypes (of the typical person) and attitudes (about desirable characteristics). While atttitudes may have changed in the 1970s, stereotypes remained remarkably stable.     

Images of occupations: Components of gender and status in occupational stereotypes

A multidimensional approach to occupational gender type was explored. In Study 1, participants' spontaneous images of various jobs were elicited. The attributes generated were used to develop a job images questionnaire employed in Study 2 on which participants rated a random sample of 100 occupational titles. Occupational images were primarily structured on two orthogonal dimensions: prestige and gender type. The multidimensional approach to occupational gender-type was supported in that important gender-related occupational attributes (masculine personality trait requirements and analytical skills) did not load on the gender-type factor, but did load highly on the prestige factor. Thus, even though the prestige and gender-type factors were orthogonal, specific gender-related attributes were related to perceived occupational prestige.     

Sex stereotypes in Norway revisited: 1977–87

In 1977 sex-trait stereotypes in Norway were measured at the young adult level and at the level of five-year-olds. At the young adult level the Adjective Check List was used, and the results were analysed according to an affective meaning scoring system, and a scoring system based on Transactional Analysis. The instrument used for children was a picture-story technique (Sex Stereotype Measure II). Persistence and change in sex-trait stereotypes were examined by replicating the study in 1987. Quantitatively, young adults' sex-trait stereotypes seemed to have changed little during the last decade, but qualitative analyses indicated that stereotypes have changed in the direction of greater favourability, activity and strength towards women and in the reverse direction towards men. The children in the 1987 sample expressed less stereotype knowledge than children in the 1977 sample concerning traits which traditionally have been ascribed to men.     

Interpersonal distance and impression formation

Impression formation was examined as a function of interpersonal physical distance in an interview. It was predicted that a confederate would be rated less socially active as the distance between him and the subject increased. The hypothesis was supported by a significant negative linear trend in the composite ratings of friendliness, aggressiveness, extraversion, and dominance A variation in this trend, indicating that confederates seated closest to the subject were seen as less socially active, was explained in terms of compensatory behaviors minimizing the effect of close physical proximity     

Self-actualization and impression formation1

Self-actualization (SA), assessed by scores on the Personal Orientation Inventory, was related to interpersonal behavior in two person perception experiments. SA moderated both personality impression ratings of stimulus persons presented singly and person preference choices in a paired comparisons paradigm. In general, self-actualized individuals were found to be more extreme in their responses to social stimuli than were non-self-actualized individuals. Results were discussed in terms of previous attempts to assess the relationship between SA and cognitive processing.     

Challenging occupational stereotypes: Women's training roadshows and guidance at school level

The views that women and girls hold about themselves contribute to the segregation of women in the labour market. Women's Training Roadshows are an example of initiatives aimed at 'cultural interruption', in that they attempt to challenge occupational stereotypes. This paper evaluates the Cardiff Women's Roadshow from the schoolgirls' perspective and discusses the implications of the findings for careers guidance at school level.     

Male and female careers: Sex-role and occupational stereotypes among high school students

The present study combined two areas of research, occupational perceptions and sex-role stereotypes, in a 2 (Gender of Subject: male, female) × 2 (Gender of Character: male, Paul or David; female, Paula or Susan) × 2 (Gender of Occupation: male, doctor or lawyer; female, nurse or secretary) between-subjects factorial design. High school students rated male and female characters in traditional and nontraditional occupations on the following six personality traits: ambitious, effective, emotional, intelligent, responsible, and traditional. The main finding was that occupational stereotypes were more prevalent than sex-role stereotypes. Reasons for this outcome are discussed and the implications of the study in light of past and future research are considered.