Symbiosis, the Family, and Natural Systems

Family systems theory, as developed by Murray Bowen, has its conceptual basis in natural systems. A basic premise is that emotional process is not unique to homo sapiens and that human behavior might better be understood by observing this process in the broader context of all natural systems. This essay discusses the phenomenon of symbiosis as it is used in the natural sciences and as it relates to the emergence of increasingly complex systems in nature. Finally, the emergence of the parent/offspring symbiosis from its possible origins to its development in the human family is discussed.     

HUMANE PHILOSOPHY AND THE QUESTION OF PROGRESS

According to some recent critics, philosophy has not progressed over the course of its history because it has not exhibited any substantial increase in the stock of human wisdom. I reject this pessimistic conclusion by arguing that such criticisms employ a conception of progress drawn from the sciences which is inapplicable to a humanistic discipline such as philosophy. Philosophy should not be understood as the accumulation of epistemic goods in a manner analogous to the natural sciences. I argue that the progressiveness of philosophy consists, if anything, in its capacity to provoke and sustain critical reflections upon the ideas and practices which shape and guide human life.     

Pant-Legs and Pathology: The Marriage of Individual and Family Assessment

Bowen family systems theory suggests that individuals who report high levels of individual pathology will also report having been raised in families characterized by high conflict and low adaptability. Combining individual and family assessment measures, or using one type of measure to understand the results of the other may be possible through the application of systems theory. Therapeutic implications of the study reported here indicate that practitioners should consider the value of focusing on family of origin processes before a primary focus on isolated traumatic events guides the direction of therapy.     

Life: Definition,Origin, and Evolution

Out of all the natural phenomena surrounding us, the phenomena Life, as a matter of course, is that which is the most mysterious and least understood of all. In many aspects, it seems as though it would be possible to investigate, study, and explain Life, like so many of the other subjects that fall within the category of the natural sciences: time, space, mass, movement, and so on. However, in its essence, Life is organized and managed differently than all other natural phenomena, operating, as it were, according to its own laws. Life certainly has certain clearly recognizable characteristics, such as: metabolism, homeostasis, continuity, and more. However, up until the present time, no definition for Life has been provided, which unifies it as an entity, and differentiates it unmistakably from other natural phenomenon. The current article offers a definition of the true nature of the phenomenon of Life, which in turn helps to explain the big questions of life—evolution, the mind–body problem, consciousness, and more.     

Emergence of Life

Discussions of the origin of life usually assume that there is a specific event, however improbable, by which dead matter became a living entity. Naturalistic accounts, although in seeming opposition to theistic explanations of the apparent design of even the simplest cells, often share the assumption that there is a specific line to be crossed. If the problem is recast as one of a process of emergence of biochemistry from protobiochemistry, which in turn emerged from the organic chemistry and geochemistry of primitive earth, the resources of the new sciences of complex systems dynamics can provide a more robust conceptual framework within which to explore the possible pathways of chemical complexification leading to life. In such a view the emergence of life is the result of deep natural laws (the outlines of which we are only beginning to perceive) and reflects a degree of holism in those systems that led to life. Further, there is the possibility of developing a more general theory of biology and of natural organization from such an approach. The emergence of life may thus be seen as an instance of the broader innate creativity of nature and consistent with a possible natural teleology.     

Meaning as inter-connectedness: theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence

Researchers interested in the study of eudaimonic well-being have devoted increasing efforts in the attempt to define and understand meaning as a core resource fostering human development and successful adaptation to environmental demands. Conceptual models and empirical findings highlighted the pivotal role of relationships and connectedness in the construction and enhancement of meaning throughout life. In this paper connectedness is discussed from an interdisciplinary perspective, encompassing theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence developed within the natural and social sciences. The cross-disciplinary emphasis on the substantial role of inter-connectedness in shaping living systems and human communities will be highlighted. Taking into account these interdisciplinary convergences and empirical evidence obtained from the psychological investigation of the sources and structure of meaning, three levels of connectedness will be identified, namely proximal, distal and symbolic. A comprehensive framework will be proposed, in which inter-connectedness is considered a crucial aspect of the prominent sources of meaning in daily life, as well as the core essence of meaning itself. This approach offers the possibility to explore meaning from a unifying perspective, overcoming disciplinary boundaries and opening new research avenues.     

The Family Diagram and Genogram: Comparisons and Contrasts

The family diagram and its derivative the genogram are widely used in marriage and family therapy, other mental health disciplines, and family medicine. After a brief history of the origins of the family diagram and genogram, several different areas are compared in order to help distinguish differences between family diagrams and genograms. The results of these evaluations illustrate some similarities in format and symbols due to a common history, but distinct differences in purpose, theoretical basis, rationale for data collection, and interpretation guidelines. Divergent theoretical perspectives explain the differences between family diagrams and genograms. The family diagram is intertwined with Bowen family systems theory, while the genogram emphasizes how the nuclear family interacts within multiple contextual levels. The family diagram and genogram are not synonymous; rather, they are distinctly different methods of family assessment.     

Re-Membering Spirituality

Ritual has been used as a therapeutic tool within family therapy for nearly two decades. Our understanding of ritual has been drawn from studies of cultures in which all life was viewed as sacred. However, common use of ritual in therapy lifts ritual out of its sacred context and secularizes it. Blending some of the key thinking in feminist theology with feminist psychology can help women reconnect with a perspective on the sacred that is empowering. Reimbuing ritual with the sacred and expanding its use in therapy make it a powerful healing process for women.     

The family-of-origin framework: A model for clinical training

Family-of-origin work is defined as a person's attempt to examine and/or change the patterns of interaction that occur in the family in which s/he was raised. This article outlines a model of family-of-origin work that is used in the clinical psychology training program at St. Louis University. The family therapy literature, particularly the work of Bowen, provides its theoretical underpinnings. An integral part of family-of-origin presentations is the genogram, or visual depiction of a family tree. Many ethical issues arise from the use of family-of-origin work within the context of clinical training, including confidentiality, responsibility, informed consent, values, and the boundaries of the supervisory relationship.     

WHEN INFANTS GROW UP IN MULTIPERSON RELATIONSHIP SYSTEMS

Despite prompts from the field of family therapy since its inception, contemporary infant mental health theory and practice remain firmly rooted in and guided by dyadic-based models. Over the past 10 years, a groundswell of new empirical studies of triadic and family group dynamics during infancy have substantiated that which family theory has contended for decades: looking beyond mother-infant or father-infant dyads reveals a myriad of critically important socialization influences and dynamics that are missed altogether when relying on informant reports or dyad-based interactions. Such family-level dynamics emerge within months after infants are born, show coherence through time, and influence the social and emotional adjustment of children as early as the toddler and preschool years. This report summarizes key findings from the past decade of empirical family studies, highlights several areas in need of further conceptual development and empirical study by those who work with infants and their families, and outlines important implications of this body of work for all practicing infant mental health professionals.     

Women in families: feminist therapy and family systems*

Current family therapy has as its basis the concept of the family as a system. Systems theory has developed a set of explanations that are frequently functional in nature; they are often applied as though they assume that within a system a common goal is worked towards as in biological systems. For example, the concept of homeostasis is used in much the same way as Cannon (1929) used it to describe the mechanisms of stability within biological systems such as body temperature regulation. Here all the components of the system co-operate to maintain body temperature within certain limits. This functional assumption of a common aim amongst components of a system to achieve balance should be compared with a pluralist systems analysis which does not assume such commonality of goals. For example, a pluralist analysis could highlight the conflict inherent amongst different subsystems when one subsystem has more power than the other. At a theoretical level it can be seen that family systems theory has restricted itself to a limited set of assumptions about the explanatory concepts it uses. An analysis of women's psychology which has emerged through the developments of feminist therapy can enrich the theory and practice of family therapists.     

The Primary Triangle and Variation in Nuclear Family Functioning

The triangle, a concept in Bowen theory, is the emotional molecule in the family system that shapes the human over the course of life. This longitudinal study explored the influence of the family of origin primary triangle on 51 couples’ family of procreation functioning over 10 years. The quantitative analysis found associations between family of procreation functioning and three variables: distance versus openness in the family of origin primary triangle, the degree of inside and outside positions in the primary triangle, and the degree of family projection as expressed in worry. In addition, the three triangle relationships correlated with each other, supporting the idea that each relationship influenced the other. Using qualitative methods, a focused analysis elaborated on the quantitative findings.     

Understanding alliances. How can research inform user‐friendly practice?

'User-friendliness' is described as a therapist stance which involves attentiveness to the quality of the 'therapeutic relationship', both between therapist and family and between service providers and their public. This article draws on research published in the last seven years from within and outside the family therapy field which can help improve this relationship. I will argue that the issues which challenge user-friendly practice need to be related to the theories which inform family therapy and to the traditional tension within the research field between focusing on measurable outcomes or on user satisfaction. The urgency for a clear analysis of what can make family therapy practice more sensitive to its public comes partly from the relative state of maturity which family therapy has now reached and its need actively to work alongside other approaches. Other crucial influences considered are a greater public demand for choice and improvements in public services, and social policy trends towards greater efficiency and accountability within the helping services.     

西方心理分离的研究回顾

近几十年来,家庭对儿童青少年心理发展的影响受到众多研究者的关注,国外家庭研究和治疗领域的许多研究者进行了大量有关心理分离的研究。心理分离即个体与家庭在心理上的分离并形成个体化的程度。文章从心理分离的界定、心理分离的理论背景（Mahler发展阶段理论、Bowen家庭系统理论）、心理分离的测量方法、心理分离研究现状这几方面对现有研究进行了综述,并做了简要评述,最后阐述了西方心理分离的研究对我国家庭研究与治疗的启示,并对未来的研究进行了展望     

Systematische Überlegungen zu Husserls Einstellungslehre

In this paper I sketch a systematic reconstruction of Husserl’s fundamental concept of “attitude”. I first explore Husserl’s account with respect to the three faculties of intellect, will, and emotivity [Gemüt], which also define the three basic kinds of attitude. The attitude assumed by the subject plays at this level the important role of articulating and unifying, according to an overall direction, various underlying moments of a complex act. I then focus on the specific intellectual, viz. cognitive attitudes and highlight the difference between the naturalistic attitude (which characterizes the natural sciences) and the personalistic attitude (which characterizes the human sciences). I then consider the notion of the natural attitude and argue that the personalistic attitude represents the systematic core of it. The natural attitude may be defined as the human attitude, i.e., as the attitude in which subjects posit themselves exclusively as human subjects belonging to the world, which is itself unceasingly posited as being. In the final part of the paper I explore the function of the phenomenological reduction insofar as it opens up a possibility of self-understanding that breaks with the natural, human self-apprehension and discloses subjectivity in its transcendental dimension. This opens up a radically new attitude, the phenomenological, which should not be confused with a first-person perspective within the framework of the natural attitude.     

Family Therapy With Irish-Americans

This paper presents a paradigm for understanding the cultural values and family patterns of Irish-American families and offers suggestions for clinical intervention. Families' correspondence to the model described will depend upon their level of acculturation, socioeconomic status, and other contextual factors. The paradigm suggests a number of issues that may create difficulties for the therapist and for the family in therapy. In general, behavioral techniques, Bowen systems therapy, and strategic interventions may be more useful than techniques emphasizing expression of emotions in therapy or direct attempts to alter communication or family behavior in therapy sessions, as used in structural therapy.     

What is the Crisis of Western Sciences?

This article is an attempt to formulate a clear definition of the concept of crisis of Western sciences introduced by Husserl in his last work. The attempt will be based on a reading of the Krisis, which will stress its underlying continuity with Husserl’s life-long concerns about the theoretical insufficiency of positive sciences, and downplay the novelty of the idea of crisis itself within Husserl’s work. After insisting on the fact that, according to Husserl, only an account of the shortcomings of the scientificity of Western sciences can justify the claim that they are undergoing a crisis, it will be argued that the common definition of the crisis of the sciences as the loss of their significance for life rests on a misunderstanding. The crisis of Western sciences will be characterized, instead, as the repercussion of the crisis of the scientificity of philosophy (and, specifically, of metaphysics) on the scientificity of positive sciences. The loss of significance of scientific knowledge for our existence will in turn appear as a further, inevitable consequence of the uprooting of the sciences from the soil of a universal philosophy culminating in metaphysics, and thus, as a phenomenon deeply intertwined with the crisis of Western sciences, but not identical to it.     

Conversations on contexts and meanings: On understanding therapeutic change from a contextual viewpoint

Recent developments within family therapy theory, often referred to as the Post-Milan Movement, have once again stressed the therapeutic encounter'squality of conversation. When therapy is looked upon as conversation, attention is not only paid to the fact that most of what happens in a session is talking. Rather, a more fundamental stance towardshuman life as basically meaning- making is taken. This is one of the essential premises of the contextualist approach to the social sciences.When applied to human problems this approach claims that symptoms evolve when (1) a person gives meaning to and performs a social act within a context inappropriate to the socially shared meaning of that act, and (2) the behavior of the person is accepted as a symptom by him/herself and the observing community. The therapeutic conversation establishes an exclusive context within which the domains of discourse of the client's life can be accounted for and renegotiated. With the acceptance of these accounts, changes evolve in the context-act relationships (i.e. meanings) construed by the client. This appears to be the basis for the self-healing aspects of psychotherapy.