Implicit Motive Profile Analysis: An If‐Then Contingency Approach to the Picture‐Story Exercise

Picture‐story exercise (PSE) measures of implicit motives provide objective, stable, and valid scores. However, PSE scores are also characterized by substantial variability from one picture to the next, resulting in low internal consistency estimates. We argue that this variability is a critical source of the PSE's validity because it reveals stable if‐then contingencies between the situational contexts represented by the picture cues and individuals' motivational responses to them. We also present the correspondence hypothesis, according to which the situational cues in the PSE are representative of specific real‐life situations and a person's imaginative‐story responses to the PSE cues therefore also reflect his or her real‐life responses to such situations. We review corroborating research and discuss the implications of the if‐then contingency approach for assessment, prediction, and for the measurement of motivational congruence.     

Goal orientation dispositions and performance trajectories: The roles of supplementary and complementary situational inducements

Integrating goal orientation theory with interactionist approaches, this experimental study (N = 104) tested the unique and interactive effects of individual differences in goal orientations and situational goal orientation inducements on performance trajectories during skill acquisition. Results indicated that learning goal orientation predicted performance trajectories more positively when coupled with one situational inducement that captures a complementary feature (a performance, as opposed to a learning, goal frame), and when jointed with a situational inducement that captures a supplementary feature (self-referenced vs. normative-based performance feedback). There was also a complementary-like interaction between the two situational inducements, such that a learning goal frame led to more positive performance trajectories when coupled with normative, as opposed to self-referent, feedback. Implications for the motivation and skill acquisition literatures are discussed.     

Adaptive Planning

Adaptive Planning is an approach to planning in the commonsense domain. An adaptive planner takes advantage of the habitual nature of many of the planning situations for which it plans by bosing its activities on a memory of pre-stored plans. A critical issue, and the subject of this paper, is the question of flexibility: How does an adaptive planner refit an old plan in order to meet the demands of some new planning situation? An adaptive planner refits prestored plans by constructing an interpretation of the situation in which it is engaged. Key elements in the theory of adaptive planning are its treatment of specific plans and a notion of situation matching. The theory of adaptive planning has been modeled by a computer program called PLEXUS.     

Decision Making Versus Decision Implementation: An Action Control Approach to Exercise Adoption and Adherence1

Two studies were conducted, one involving adoption of an exercise program and the other involving adherence to an aerobics exercise program. Consistent with action control theory, it was hypothesized that (a) subjective expected utility theory would predict exercise intentions but not exercise behavior in each study; (b) exercise adoption (Study 1) and attendance at an aerobics class (Study 2) would be predictable from the intentions regarding these behaviors expressed by action-oriented but not state-oriented subjects; and (c) subjects who had engaged in planning in regard to exercising would be more likely to adopt an exercise program (Study 1) and would exercise more frequently (Study 2). The findings provide some support for all three hypotheses. Implications of this research are discussed in regard to the distinction between decision making and decision implementation or action control; the relative usefulness of an action-control versus an expectancy-value approach for behavior involving complex decision implementation over a long period of time; the value of action orientation as a moderator of intention-behavior relationships; and the role of planning in exercise behavior.     

Coincidence timing of finger, arm, and whole body movements

Two experiments investigated the effects of different types of movement responses on coincidence timing skill. The view was taken that the sensory-motor integration of the movement responses would be reflected in the accuracy and consistency of anticipation timing. A Bassin anticipation timer provided a light stimulus velocity of 3 mph for both experiments and the movements studied included a simple key press using a finger, an arm movement to a key press, and whole body movements culminating with a kick or step to a target. The experiments were modelled closely on the seminal study by Grose (1967). The results of Exp. 1 supported our prediction by demonstrating superiority of the finger task over the two larger movements for all measures of coincidence timing ability. The purpose of Exp. 2 was to compare the slightly different versions of the whole body task-that used in the first experiment and that used by Grose (1967). The results confirmed the close similarity of the two movement tasks and re-affirmed the results of Exp. 1. Exp. 2 also investigated sex effects on coincidence timing ability and, in contrast to previous evidence indicating that females perform with less accuracy and consistency than do males, no significant differences were found. Analysis of practice effects showed that, although there were no significant improvements over trial blocks in Exp. 1, there were significant improvements in Exp. 2. Comparisons with other research suggests that repeated practice in solving a coincident timing problem using whole body movements can lead to improved performance. In general, the findings are consistent with the constructs of action theory and emphasize the roles perceptual and movement variables have in defining situational constraints. Also, findings indicate that proficiency in coincidence anticipation appears to be influenced by the planning and organisation required for movement execution.     

Did the instigator intend to provoke? A key moderator in the relation between trait aggression and aggressive behavior

The purpose of this study was to investigate the cross‐situational consistency of trait aggression in provoking situations where an instigator (1) clearly intended to provoke, (2) clearly intended not to provoke, or (3) where presence of intention was ambiguous. It was hypothesized that cross‐situational consistency would be substantial, and that trait aggression would have the greatest impact on aggressive behavior in ambiguous situations. Participants were 80 female and 38 male undergraduate students. They completed the Aggression Questionnaire [Buss and Perry, J Pers Soc Psychol, 1992, pp. 452], read a set of 24 vignettes depicting conflict situations and rated their perceived likelihood of becoming angry and aggressive in those situations. An overall cross‐situational consistency correlation coefficient of r=.47 was found. It was also found that trait aggression had a significantly greater effect on the likelihood of aggressive responses in the ambiguous and intentional situations than it did in the unintentional situations. These results are discussed in relation to trait activation and hostile attribution bias. Aggr. Behav. 30:409–424, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A computational-level explanation of the speed of goal inference

The ability to understand the goals that drive another person’s actions is an important social and cognitive skill. This is no trivial task, because any given action may in principle be explained by different possible goals (e.g., one may wave ones arm to hail a cab or to swat a mosquito). To select which goal best explains an observed action is a form of abduction. To explain how people perform such abductive inferences, Baker, Tenenbaum, and Saxe (2007) proposed a computational-level theory that formalizes goal inference as Bayesian inverse planning (BIP). It is known that general Bayesian inference–be it exact or approximate–is computationally intractable (NP-hard). As the time required for computationally intractable computations grows excessively fast when scaled from toy domains to the real world, it seems that such models cannot explain how humans can perform Bayesian inferences quickly in real world situations. In this paper we investigate how the BIP model can nevertheless explain how people are able to make goal inferences quickly. The approach that we propose builds on taking situational constraints explicitly into account in the computational-level model. We present a methodology for identifying situational constraints that render the model tractable. We discuss the implications of our findings and reflect on how the methodology can be applied to alternative models of goal inference and Bayesian models in general.     

Bridging the intention–behavior gap: Inducing implementation intentions through persuasive appeals

The potential of using implementation intentions—action plans that link a critical situational cue to a specific goal-directed behavior—to bridge the intention–behavior gap in consumer behavior has been limited by the practice of using explicit instructions to induce the construct. In two studies, we therefore tested the effectiveness of an indirect, persuasive strategy that benefits from the positive consequences of implementation intentions by ‘mimicking’ their underlying psychological processes. Experiment 1 showed that a strategy presenting vivid information on critical cues and appropriate behavioral responses affected mental imagery. Experiment 2 demonstrated that this strategy affected actual purchase behavior.     

What sources contribute to variance in observer ratings? Using generalizability theory to assess construct validity of psychological measures

Cronbach and Meehl (Psychol. Bull. 1955; 52:281–302) stated that the key question to be addressed when assessing construct validity is ‘What sources contribute to variance in test performance?’ We illustrate the utility of generalizability theory (GT) as a conceptual framework that encourages psychological researchers to address this question and as a flexible set of analytic tools that can provide answers to inform both substantive theory and measurement practice. To illustrate these capabilities, we analyze observer ratings of 27 caregiver–child dyads, focusing on the importance of situational (contextual) factors as sources of variance in observer ratings of caregiver–child behaviors. Cross‐situational consistency was relatively low for the categories of behavior analyzed, indicating that dyads vary greatly in their interactional patterns from one situation to the next, so that it is difficult to predict behavioral frequencies in one context from behaviors observed in a different context. Our findings suggest that single‐situation behavioral measures may have limited generalizability, either to behavior in other contexts or as measures of global interaction tendencies. We discuss the implications of these findings for research and measurement design in developmental psychology. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

行为的跨情境一致性及人格与行为的关系——对人格内涵及其中西方差异的理论与实证分析

旨在对行为的跨情境一致性和人格的内涵等问题进行跨文化的理论和实证分析。人格内容被划分为4个层次,包括个体的外显行为、内心体验、动机和神经生理基础等,文化对人格的不同内容都会产生一定的影响。同时,不同情境下的行为由于受到来自个体内部不同动机（自我统一性动机与适应环境要求的动机）的影响而出现跨情境的一致或不一致。文中从理论和实证角度对上述问题进行了分析,并提出了进一步研究的方向     

Psychological predictors of coping responses among Greek basketball referees

The authors examined the effects of situational appraisals (perceived control and intensity), coping styles (monitoring and blunting), and personal dispositions (optimism and self-esteem) on the approach and avoidance coping responses of skilled Greek basketball referees (N = 162) and the consistency of their responses following 3 game-related stressful situations. In an effort to clarify the variables involved in coping and to consider the theoretical principles both within and beyond sports, the authors replicated an earlier study among Australian basketball referees (A. Kaissidis-Rodafinos, M. H. Anshel, & A. Porter, 1997). The results were equivocal: The Greek referees were not consistent in using avoidance and approach coping responses across situations. Approach coping was more predictable than avoidance coping in accounting for both situational and personal variables.     

The theory of uncertainty orientation: a mathematical reformulation

In this paper, we present a mathematical formulation derived from the theory of uncertainty orientation (In R.M. Sorrehtino, & E.T. Higgins (Eds.), the handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behaviour, Vol. 1 (pp. 379-403). New York: The Guilford press; The uncertain mind: Individual differences in facing the unknown. London: Erlbaum (UK), Taylor & Francis). This formulation integrates affective and informational influences on thought and action. It is a model of self-regulation where the need to maintain clarity and the need to attain clarity are considered as two independent informational tendencies. These informational tendencies are influenced by the degree of self-relevance and the amount of perceived situational uncertainty. In addition, they are multiplicative with affective approach and avoidance tendencies, leading to accentuation or inhibition of behaviors expressed in action. It is further demonstrated that when the nondominant action tendency is instigated, secondary sources of motivation are expressed. This model not only accounts for past data, but also permits exploration using computer simulation. In addition, many new and testable hypotheses, including those related to affect and dynamical decision theory, are generated.     

Psychological Predictors of Coping Responses Among Greek Basketball Referees

Abstract

The authors examined the effects of situational appraisals (perceived control and intensity), coping styles (monitoring and blunting), and personal dispositions (optimism and self-esteem) on the approach and avoidance coping responses of skilled Greek basketball referees (N = 162) and the consistency of their responses following 3 game-related stressful situations. In an effort to clarify the variables involved in coping and to consider the theoretical principles both within and beyond sports, the authors replicated an earlier study among Australian basketball referees (A. Kaissidis-Rodafinos, M. H. Anshel, & A. Porter, 1997). The results were equivocal: The Greek referees were not consistent in using avoidance and approach coping responses across situations. Approach coping was more predictable than avoidance coping in accounting for both situational and personal variables.     

On the waxing and waning of working memory: action orientation moderates the impact of demanding relationship primes on working memory capacity

The present research examined how action- versus state-oriented individuals (Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994) utilize their working memory capacity under varying situational demands. Participants visualized either a demanding or an accepting person, after which their working memory capacity was assessed. Among action-oriented participants, visualizing a demanding person led to greater operation spans (Study 1) and superior memory for intention-related information (Study 2) than visualizing an accepting person. State-oriented participants displayed the opposite pattern, such that visualizing an accepting person led to greater operation spans (Study 1) and superior memory for intentions (Study 2) than visualizing a demanding person. These findings indicate that action versus state orientation moderates the impact of situational demands on working memory capacity.     

Situational judgment tests in high-stakes settings: issues and strategies with generating alternate forms

This study used principles underlying item generation theory to posit competing perspectives about which features of situational judgment tests might enhance or impede consistent measurement across repeat test administrations. This led to 3 alternate-form development approaches (random assignment, incident isomorphism, and item isomorphism). The effects of these approaches on alternate-form consistency, mean score changes, and criterion-related validity were examined in a high-stakes context (N = 3,361). Generally, results revealed that even small changes in the context of the situations presented resulted in significantly lower alternate-form consistency. Conversely, placing more constraints on the alternate-form development process proved beneficial. The contributions, implications, and limitations of these results for the development of situational judgment tests and high-stakes testing are discussed.     

Measurement of fear of the conditioned stimulus and of situational cues at several stages of two-way avoidance learning

In Experiment 1, subjects were trained in a signaled two-way avoidance task to a criterion of either 2, 10, or 20 consecutive avoidance responses. Subsequently, they were allowed to escape, in the absence of shock, from one compartment of the avoidance apparatus to an adjacent safe box. For one group at each criterion level, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was presented during these trials; for another group, it was not (NCS). The rate and level of learning of the escape response were taken to reflect the amount of fear of the CS and situational cues present at the end of avoidance training for the CS groups and the amount of fear of the situational cues alone for the NCS groups. Under the CS condition, all groups learned equally well; under the NCS condition, learning occurred only in the two-criterion group. This pattern of results suggests that, as avoidance training continued, differential reinforcement led to the formation of a discrimination so that a substantial amount of fear was elicited by the CS plus situational cues but only a minimal amount by the situational cues alone. Such a loss of fear of situational cues would, according to effective reinforcement theory, serve to maintain or even increase reinforcement as avoidance training progressed. The results of Experiment 2, by ruling out some alternative explanations, supported the interpretation that the learning of the instrumental escape response in the first experiment was based on prior fear conditioning.     

Moral Propensity,Setting, and Choice: A Partial Test of Situational Action Theory

Wikström’s Situational Action Theory (2004) proposes that deviant acts are the product of a series of interactions between individual- and situational-level causal factors: (1) individuals’ moral propensity interacts with situational temptations/provocations to determine which action alternatives are available, (2) individuals’ self-control and situational deterrence interact to influence the choice of action taken. The present study uses self-report data on the frequency of academic dishonesty to test these interactions. The results provide mixed support for the theory.     

Behavioural Consistency Within the Prisoner's Dilemma Game: The Role of Personality and Situation

Mixed‐motive games represent situations that confront people with a conflict between cooperative and non‐cooperative alternatives. Despite this common basis, recent research has shown that the consistency of people's choices across different mixed‐motive games is rather low. The present research examined behavioural consistency within the same mixed‐motive game, by presenting participants with a series of one‐shot Prisoner's Dilemma Games. Across this set of games, payoffs were manipulated in order to intensify or weaken the conflict between self and the other party while maintaining the game's underlying structure. Our findings indicate that significant differences in choice behaviour are observed as a function of both situational (i.e. manipulations of the Prisoner's Dilemma Game's payoff structure) and personality differences (i.e. individual differences in personality and motivational traits). Moreover, our included situational variables and personality features did not interact with each other and were about equally impactful in shaping cooperation. Crucially, however, despite the significant behavioural differences across game variants, considerable consistency in choices was found as well, which suggests that the game's motivational basis reliably impacts choice behaviour in spite of situational and personality variations. We discuss implications for theorizing on mixed‐motive situations and elaborate on the question how cooperation can be promoted. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology     

The Role of Sympathy and Altruistic Personality Traits in Helping: A Reexamination

The purposes of this study were (a) to examine the role of social evaluative concerns in the self-report of sympathy and in the relation of sympathy to helping; and (b) to determine the role of "altruistic personality" traits and situationally induced vicarious emotional responses in the intention to help. Dispositional and situational self-reports of sympathy and other vicarious emotional reactions were obtained for persons who also were given the opportunity to assist a needy other. Moreover, dispositional measures of concern with social evaluation and an altruistic orientation were obtained, and a bogus pipeline manipulation was instituted for half the study participants. Both dispositional and situational self-reported sympathy were positively related to helping, as were other personality indices viewed as reflecting altruistic characteristics. The relations for the dispositional indices of sympathy were not due solely to social evaluative concerns or to other egoistic concerns. The effects on intended helping of dispositional sympathy, perspective taking, and the tendency to ascribe responsibility for others to the self appeared to be both direct and mediated by situational sympathetic responding. Finally, situational sadness did not mediate the effects of sympathetic responsiveness.     

吸烟利弊权衡对戒烟计划的预测作用：一个有调节的中介模型

考察吸烟利弊权衡对戒烟计划的预测,以及戒烟意愿的中介作用和未来取向的调节作用。对340名吸烟者进行问卷调查结果的统计分析发现：（1）吸烟利弊权衡显著正向预测戒烟计划;（2）戒烟意愿对吸烟利弊权衡和戒烟计划的关系起完全中介作用;（3）未来取向负向调节吸烟利弊权衡和戒烟计划的关系,但对吸烟利弊权衡和戒烟意愿关系的调节不显著。这些结果说明,吸烟者戒烟计划发展经历前决策和前行动阶段,且该过程受未来取向的调节。