亲社会情境中儿童的道德情绪判断及归因模式的实验研究

运用故事情境的临床访谈方法,本研究考察了4岁和6岁儿童在亲社会情境的道德情绪判断及其归因模式,研究结果表明:(1)在亲社会道德情境中,年幼儿童倾向于判断行为者产生消极的情绪体验,年长儿童则作出积极的情绪判断;(2)在归因定向中,4岁儿童以结果定向为主,6岁儿童出现了由结果定向到道德定向的过渡;(3)亲社会情境的类型不影响儿童的道德情绪判断及归因;(4)在观点采择任务中,甚至4岁儿童也能对自己的情绪体验作出合乎道德准则的判断和归因。     

中小学生对父母管教信息的认知、情绪与行为反应倾向

运用情境模拟的方法,对中小学生对父母管教信息的认知、情绪与行为反应倾向进行了研究。被试是616名中小学生。结果表明：(1)小学中年级以上学生对家长管教信息的情绪有较准确的认知;(2)不同管教信息的教育效能有优劣之分：诱导教诲最能引起被试的正面反应,其次是困扰担忧,伤心失望能引起部分学生的顺从反应,愤怒批评易引起子女的消极情绪和对抗行为。(3)父亲发出的管教信息比母亲更具权威性,更易引起子女积极的情绪体验与行为倾向。(4)学生对家长管教信息的反应具有明显的年龄和性别差异,小学生比中学生更易接受、顺从家长管教,女生比男生易产生更多的积极情绪与服从行为。(5)被试的认知评价与其情绪反应、行为倾向有较高的一致性。学生对父母管教信息的情绪体验和行为反应很大程度上取决于对管教信息的认知。如果学生的认知较为积极,更易引起积极的情绪体验和行为倾向。     

儿童道德情绪判断及归因模式的实验研究

运用故事情境的临床访谈方法,本研究考察了4、6、8岁儿童在不同侵犯程度道德情境中的道德情绪判断及归因模式,研究结果表明：(1)儿童对行业者的道德情绪判断经由积极向消极发展．其归因模式为“个人定向一外部惩罚定向一道德定向”;(2)幼儿在道德情境中的观点采择能力受制于其发展水平,4岁儿童在冲突性情境中尚难以区分故事中的行为者与自己作为行为者在情绪体验上的差异;(3)在幼儿道德发展过程中,“快乐的损人者”预期是一种比较普遍性的现象,随着儿童年龄的增长,这一现象逐渐减弱;(4)道德情境的侵犯程度并不影响儿童的判断和归因。     

亲社会情境中小学儿童道德情绪判断及其归因研究

该文运用临床访谈法研究了小学儿童在亲社会情境中道德情绪判断及归因状况。结果表明:在亲社会情境中,儿童的道德情绪判断经由消极到积极的发展趋势,年幼儿童倾向于判断助人者会体验到消极的情绪,年长儿童则认为助人者会体验到高兴等积极情绪,并且随着儿童年龄的增长,儿童的情绪体验愈加复杂。在道德情绪归因中,年幼儿童倾向于结果定向的归因,一年级儿童中大部分以道德定向为主,随着儿童年龄的增长,儿童的归因定向逐渐多样化。     

关于归因定向与行为预测的实验研究

不同的归因方式将导致人们对行为的不同预测倾向。本文正是基于这样的假设,来考察在信息匮乏的情况下,性情归因和情景归因对他人积极行为和消极行为的预测倾向的影响。结果发现,两种归因方式都导致被试对积极行为的预测多于对消极行为的预测,而情景归因下的被试对积极行为的预测又显著多于性情归因下的被试。在此基础上,在引人价值判断的因素后,发现不同的归因方式启动了不同的价值判断,进而影响到对行为的预测。     

教师管教言语行为语效的比较研究

本研究采用Searle对语旨行为的分类标准,采用情境模拟法,探讨教师对学生管教过程中不同言语事件中的断言、指令、承诺、表达以及宣告行为,研究学生对教师的管教言语使用时产生的情绪体验、对教师交际意图的理解、可能的行为倾向,以探明不同言语行为的语效。发现:⑴学生对教师发出的五种言语行为所引发的情绪体验、交际意图认知、行为倾向之间的存在显著差异。表达易引起被试愉快情绪,其次是断言与指令,承诺与宣告易引起被试不愉快情绪。对教师言语交际意图的认知以及服从行为倾向,表达、断言、指令高于承诺与宣告。⑵被试对五种管教言语行为交际意图的认知与其对教师管教的言语的情绪反应以及行为倾向间均存在显著的正相关。     

4-10岁儿童道德情绪归因研究

应用道德情绪归因和情绪/道德判断两项作业,研究120名4、6、8、10岁儿童道德情绪归因能力的发展,结果发现,大多效4—6岁儿童对犯过者的成功行为体验积极的情绪,而大多数8—10岁儿童则体验消极的情绪。因而可观察到,我国儿童的道德情绪归因从结果定向向道德定向发展的一般模式,发展的转折年龄大致在6岁左右.     

父母教育焦虑和青少年情绪与行为问题的关系:父母消极教养方式的中介作用

本研究通过两个子研究,共选取1155名中小学生及其母亲或父亲作为被试,分别考察了母亲教育焦虑和父亲教育焦虑如何通过母亲和父亲消极教养方式对青少年情绪与行为问题产生影响。结果表明:(1)父亲和母亲教育焦虑均对青少年情绪与行为问题有显著正向预测作用;(2)父亲和母亲消极教养方式均在母亲教育焦虑和青少年情绪与行为问题关系中存在中介效应;(3)母亲消极教养方式在父亲教育焦虑和青少年情绪与行为问题关系中存在中介效应。     

幼儿的情绪表现规则知识发展及其与家庭情绪表露、社会行为的相关研究

通过幼儿情绪表现规则知识的访谈、家庭情绪表露问卷和幼儿社会行为评估问卷调查,考察了112名3～6岁幼儿情绪表现规则知识的发展及其与家庭情绪表露、社会行为的关系。结果表明:(1)幼儿的表情调节知识存在显著的年龄差异,大班幼儿比小班幼儿具有更高的表情调节知识、更倾向于掩饰消极情绪;(2)幼儿的表情调节知识与情绪表达的人际支持、工具支持的结果期望存在显著正相关,即幼儿掩饰消极情绪是因为预期情绪表达不会得到他人理解和帮助;(3)幼儿报告面对父母同伴教师不同在场者时具有不同的情绪体验,且幼儿的人际支持结果预期存在年龄和在场者的交互作用;(4)家庭情绪表露与幼儿的人际支持的结果预期存在显著正相关、与工具支持的结果预期存在显著负相关;(5)倾向于掩饰消极情绪的幼儿表现出更多的亲社会行为,认为表达消极情绪会带来不良结果的幼儿表现出更多的害羞退缩行为。     

2-8年级儿童的责任心发展

以241名2-8年级儿童为被试,运用情境故事探索儿童责任心发展的特点。结果显示：（1）责任心的认知判断与行为倾向一致性较低;行为倾向与情感体验一致性较高;（2）责任心归因可以分为权威取向、自我取向、认可取向、成本取向、原则取向5种;（3）随着年级升高,自我和社会责任心归因中权威取向比例下降,原则取向比例上升;环境责任心归因中成本取向比例下降,原则取向比例上升;（4）责任心的成本取向似乎与现今的社会转型有关,是以往研究所没有的。     

助推爱心：利用默认选项促进捐赠行为

本研究采用实验室和现场实验的方法检验了默认选项的助推策略是否能够促进慈善捐赠行为。结果发现：（1）相较于把被试费的“保留选项”设置为默认,把“捐献选项”设置为默认时,被试捐献的概率和金额更高;（2）在多个捐款选项情景中,默认选项的设置总体上提高了默认选项被选择的概率;将最大金额选项设置为默认选项有助于提高被试平均捐赠额。这些发现表明,应用默认选项的助推策略能够有效促进人们的捐赠行为。本研究结果对减少募捐成本、提高募捐效率有所启示。     

Putting the onus on authority: A review of obedient behavior and why we should move on

The obedience to authority domain arose in psychological research between the 1950s–1960s as a combination of interest in obedience, conformity, and compliance that expanded after Milgram's shock experiments. Each of these components compared different forms of submissive behavior as a response to authority and social pressure, but over the past fifty years the domain has merged these three components and become more centered around the shock of submissive behavior than the authority that causes it. As a result, many modern investigations use inconsistent understandings of these constructs and often leave out manipulation of the second half of the paradigm – authority. If we reintroduce the distinctions for each form of submissive behavior, we can notice patterns of how each is related to differences in authority and the systemic benefits of studying the nuances of authoritative systems. Understanding the impact of power dynamics on submissive behavior and what truly separates obedience from conformity and compliance not only allows for a more dualistic approach to this discipline, but allows the authority domain to provide insight into other domains such as education, workplace behavior, and conformity to mass media.     

身体的意义：生成论视域下的情绪理论

生成论的情绪学说从“意义建构”的视角看待情绪的动力作用, 主张情绪与认知相互交织, 与有机体适应环境的身体活动密切联系。情绪是身体的情绪, 身体是情绪体验中的身体。身体在情绪体验中扮演着构成性角色。根据这一观点, 情绪是一种积极的行动倾向, 是在理解环境意义基础上的具身行动。情绪并非发生于有机体头颅内, 而是产生于大脑、身体和环境的互动与耦合之中。由于认知与情绪在生成论的视域下统一在有机体意义建构的活动之中, 因而认知的4E属性也必然反映到情绪上, 使得情绪和情感也具有了具身、嵌入、延展和生成特征。情绪的生成理论为了解情绪, 进而理解意识的本质提供了一个新视角。     

Orders to Shoot (a Camera): Effects of Ostracism on Obedience

Research suggests that ostracism increases susceptibility to indirect forms of social influence (e.g., conformity). Yet, no study to date has explored whether the effects of ostracism extend to the most direct form of social influence—obedience. We investigated whether ostracized individuals would be more likely to obey a direct command to do something effortful in uncomfortable conditions. Participants (N = 62) were randomly assigned to be included or ostracized in Cyberball, or assigned to a control condition. They were then approached by the experimenter and commanded to go outside when temperatures were below 30°F and take 39 unique and creative photographs in the cold of winter. Ostracized participants were more likely to obey the experimenter’s command to be creative when taking photographs. No differences in obedience emerged between the inclusion and the control condition. We provided evidence completing the social influence “trifecta”: ostracism increases susceptibility to conformity, compliance, and now, obedience.     

Words or deeds? Choosing what to know about others

Social cooperation often relies on individuals?? spontaneous norm obedience when there is no punishment for violation or reward for compliance. However, people do not consistently follow pro-social norms. Previous studies have suggested that an individual??s tendency toward norm conformity is affected by empirical information (i.e., what others did or would do in a similar situation) as well as by normative information (i.e., what others think one ought to do). Yet little is known about whether people have an intrinsic desire to obtain norm-revealing information. In this paper, we use a dictator game to investigate whether dictators actively seek norm-revealing information and, if so, whether they prefer to get empirical or normative information. Our data show that although the majority of dictators choose to view free information before making decisions, they are equally likely to choose empirical or normative information. However, a large majority (more than 80%) of dictators are not willing to incur even a very small cost for getting information. Our findings help to understand why norm compliance is context-dependent, and highlight the importance of making norm-revealing information salient in order to promote conformity.     

Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in Schools: Consideration of Relationships Between Theory and Practice

Current research has found that students who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBDs) in school are not identified early, their behaviours (and causes) are often misrepresented, and they may not receive appropriate intervention. In this paper we review current theories (and their shortcomings) on the identification and recommended actions for students who experience EBDs, acknowledging the importance of teachers' initial identification (as schools are the social arena within which most students who experience EBDs are first identified). We suggest that teachers' identification may not be informed by the full range of theories and explanations for EBDs and that they often disregard the emotional and relational aspect of EBDs which focus on individual students and fail to recognize the social context in which the students operate. These suggestions were supported in a questionnaire-based study. Teachers' identification of EBDs coincides with predominant theoretical explanations based upon an individual's inability to fit into society, seeing EBDs as a product rather than social process. Such a situation may encourage instability in classrooms and may not allow for adequate intervention for EBDs.     

Knowledge and authority: the godfather fantasy.

Three strategies are tentatively proposed by which human beings try to assuage the need for transcendence: (1) seizing the godhead; (2) submission to God; and (3) the godfather fantasy, whereby an attempt is made to clothe a mere mortal in the cloak of godly power. These strategies are connected to our innate, often conflicted, tendencies to obedience and rebellion, later elaborated into submission to authority or resistance to or cooptation of authority. These psychic tendencies are illustrated in Dostoevsky's "The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor" and in Mario Puzo's The Godfather, both brilliant demonstrations of social hierarchical control. The almost universal pull to obedience is demonstrated in the research of Stanley Milgram on obedience in hierarchical situations and theorized by Freud in his formulation of "the thirst for obedience" as a product of infantile life. It is proposed that the function of the group mind, in the form of ideology, is to counter anxieties generated throughout life, not only the remnants of childhood anxiety but also fears of death and oblivion. That a person's will to power can get out of hand and lead to disaster hardly needs saying; yet the will to submission, when connected to a shared ideology, can lead to results no less devastating. More people are killed in the name of an ideological cause run amok than are destroyed by virtue of thwarted passion, personal vendettas, criminality, or greed.     

Is consciousness intrinsically valuable?

There are some things that we think are intrinsically valuable, or valuable for their own sake. Is consciousness—subjective, qualitative experience—one of those things? Some theorists favor the positive view, according to which consciousness is intrinsically valuable. According to a positive theorist, consciousness itself accrues intrinsic value, independent of the particular kind of experience instantiated. In contrast, I favor the neutral view, according to which consciousness is neither intrinsically valuable nor disvaluable. The primary purpose of this paper is to clarify what is at stake when we ask whether consciousness is intrinsically valuable, to carve out the theoretical space, and to evaluate the question rigorously. The secondary purpose is to show why the neutral view is attractive and why certain arguments for the positive view do not work.

     

Organizing awareness and increasing emotion regulation: revising chair work in emotion-focused therapy for borderline personality disorder

Emotion-focused therapy (EFT) is an empirically supported treatment that may have potential as a stage-two treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD). Specific aspects of BPD--the tendency to experience fluctuating self-states; weakness in meta-cognitive or reflective functioning; and the tendency for self-states to be organized by presently occurring interpersonal processes--present challenges to applying some EFT interventions with this population. In particular, even within a highly attuned, validating and accepting empathic relationship, clients with BPD may have difficulty with the usual manualizations of chair work interventions. This is because these interventions often employ polarization and intensification of experience in order to activate adaptive alternate emotional resources and self organizations. For the client with borderline personality disorder, these interventions may be counter-productive, emotionally dysregulating and disorganizing. EFT chair work, however, also has the potential to provide structure to the borderline clients experience of self, to stimulate metacognitive awareness, provide an alive experience of the process of polarization, attenuate emotional activation, and increase the experience of self-coherence. This article describes the development of stepwise approximations of EFT two-chair intervention for self-critical splits. It outlines potential stages of two-chair work as well as intervention principles important for productive chair work with this population. The EFT change principles of awareness, expression regulation, reflection, transformation, and corrective experience still centrally apply. However, several additional strategies are discussed to scaffold clients' capacity to both experience and regulate emotion.