认知闭合需要研究梳理与未来走向

认知闭合需要反应了个体在不确定情景中的认知动机, 在信息爆炸不断加重认知负荷的今天具有重要研究意义。研究梳理了认知闭合需要的概念结构与测量工具, 总结了近30年来相关研究在人格特质、信息加工、决策偏好、态度信念和精神健康等领域的研究结果, 最终指出区分“能力”和“动机”是未来研究的正确走向。此外, 未来的研究还应深入探讨认知闭合需要的概念与结构, 正确使用和合理开发相关测量工具, 并且丰富对其前因变量的实证研究。     

认知闭合需要、框架效应与决策偏好

在带有模糊性的决策情境中,决策者个人的认知特征会对其判断决策产生重要影响。通过实验的方法,考察了认知闭合需要和特征框架效应对个体决策偏好的影响。93名工商管理硕士（MBA）参与了实验,研究的结果支持了本研究的3个假设,即认知闭合需要与特征框架效应不仅对被试的决策偏好存在显著的影响,而且二者还存在显著的交互作用。具体来说,研究发现,在模糊情境中：高认知闭合需要的被试偏好于立刻做出决策,而低认知闭合需要的被试偏好于暂缓做出决策;接收到正向框架信息的被试偏好于立刻做出决策,而接收到负向框架信息的被试偏好于暂缓做出决策;认知闭合需要与特征框架对被试的决策偏好还存在显著的交互作用。研究结论为根据个体认知闭合需要的水平来选拔决策者、利用框架效应来影响个体的信息加工方式进而提高决策质量提供了理论依据     

信息完整性与应聘者数量对不同认知闭合需要者招聘决策的影响

结合问卷和信息板技术,探讨了信息完整性和应聘者数量对不同认知闭合需要个体招聘决策过程发挥的潜在影响。结果显示：（1）高认知闭合需要招聘者平均决策时间更短,探索深度更浅,信息了解的更少;（2）信息完整条件下,招聘者平均决策时间更短,探索深度更浅;信息不完整条件下,低认知闭合需要招聘者的平均搜索时间增幅较大;（3）随着应聘者人数的增加,招聘者平均决策时间变长,低认知闭合需要招聘者平均搜索时间增幅较大,且两者探索模式都趋于属性加工。这意味着信息完整性与应聘者数量对不同认知闭合需要招聘者的决策影响不同,应注意培训招聘者的决策能力,提高员工招聘质量。     

认知闭合需要结构的探讨

认知闭合需要是为某一特定问题找到确定答案、结束模糊和混沌状况的需要,是个体之间的稳定差异的反映。本研究检验了Webster和Kruglanski的《认知闭合需要量表》的5维度结构是否适合中国被试,结果得到的4个维度与《认知闭合需要量表》5维度结构相对一致。对4个维度结构的进一步检验表明,认知闭合需要结构中的"对模糊的不容忍"和"心理封闭"两个维度与信息寻求倾向显著相关。     

认知闭合需要与启发式策略对价格判断的影响

采用问卷与实验相结合的方法,以120名大学生为被试,考察认知闭合需要与一般启发式策略对个体价格判断的潜在影响。结果发现:(1)认知闭合需要与精确度效应交互作用显著,高闭合个体在整数价格高低的评价上高于低闭合个体;(2)认知闭合需要与差价大小交互作用显著,差价整数位是3时高闭合个体对于差价的评价高于低闭合者;(3)认知闭合需要,左侧数字改变与以9结尾、以0结尾三者的交互作用显著,当评价左侧数字改变的价格时,高闭合个体对以0结尾的数字的评价显著高于以9结尾的数字的评价。认知闭合需要与启发式策略对价格判断共同产生影响。研究结果表明,不同的定价方式与定价策略会对认知闭合需要不同的个体产生差异性影响。     

儿童行为抑制性与心理障碍关联的认知神经过程

行为抑制型儿童相较于普通儿童更容易在童年中期和青春期出现心理障碍, 具有更高的发展风险性。此类儿童比非抑制型儿童表现出更多的退缩动机、更长的预期过程与前注意过程、更少的注意控制、对负性信息更多的注意偏向、异常活跃的反应监控过程和更慢的习惯化过程。这些与心理障碍患者相似的认知神经过程是儿童行为抑制性与心理障碍间的重要联系途径, 并能作为预测指标筛选有更高发展风险性的个体。除儿童本身的特质外, 环境因素也能通过塑造认知神经过程, 进而影响儿童的发展结果。因此在未来的研究中, 可以考虑不同文化背景下的儿童行为抑制性与心理障碍关联的认知神经过程差异。进而从个体特质和环境因素两方面寻找行为抑制型儿童发展的保护性因素。     

判断与决策中的证实性偏差

证实性偏差是指个体在决策时, 倾向于有意或无意地寻找支持已有信念、预期或假设的信息和解释, 忽视可能与之不一致的信息和解释。目前, 研究者主要从肯定检验策略、认知失调理论以及错误规避三个方面解释证实性偏差的心理机制。证实性偏差还受到条件性参考框架、任务的抽象性、个体经验以及认知闭合的需要等因素的影响。虽然证实性偏差不能完全消除, 但是可以通过竞争性假设分析法和考虑对立面的方法降低其程度。未来的研究可以从证实性偏差的产生根源、研究范式、群体决策中的证实性偏差以及拓展应用研究这四个方面进行探讨。     

算法决策趋避的过程动机理论

算法常用于决策, 但相较于由人类做出的决策, 即便内容相同, 算法决策更容易引起个体反应的分化, 此即算法决策趋避。趋近指个体认为算法的决策比人类的更加公平、含有更少的偏见和歧视、也更能信任和接受, 回避则与之相反。算法决策趋避的过程动机理论用以解释趋避现象, 归纳了人与算法交互所经历的原初行为互动、建立类社会关系和形成身份认同三个阶段, 阐述了各阶段中认知、关系和存在三种动机引发个体的趋避反应。未来研究可着眼于人性化知觉、群际感知对算法决策趋避的影响, 并以更社会性的视角来探究算法决策趋避的逆转过程和其他可能的心理动机。     

群体决策知识结构的动态网络

1知识结构与群体决策在过去20年里,社会心理学家和认知心理学家一直热衷于研究认知偏差和判断倾向。把个体水平上的认知偏差和判断倾向运用到群体决策和管理情景中是80年代以来的研究趋势。关于认知偏差和判断倾向的产生,存在着两种主要的观点。第一种观点认为原因在于环境中信息的分布,即每个人所接触到的信息存在着差异（分布）,因此个体在其后的信息提取和认知判断无论多正确,也会导致其认知偏差和判断差误。第二种观点认为,个体所面临的信息环境相差无几,每个人的差异主要是动机、知识结构和认知判断能力的分布差异。现在有一种…     

目标概念的辨析及其对决策的影响

目标对决策的影响过程包含了明晰目标的决策过程和在目标的动机作用下完成后续决策任务的过程。目标是个体期望实现的多个未来结果相互之间竞争动机作用的结果。依据对未来结果的渴望性和可行性等特征的认知, 个体抉择出某个未来结果作为自己的目标, 使其具有了动机作用。在明晰目标的过程中, 解释水平、自我控制的人格特质和成功经验都会产生重要影响。在明确了目标以后, 目标通过改变个体对有利于目标实现的决策备择方案的态度和选择性注意来影响个体的决策。未来研究可以从目标的意识程度对决策负面结果的影响, 对决策的心理过程进行直接测量等角度来探讨目标对决策的影响。     

Determinants of task performance and invested effort: a need for closure by relative cognitive capacity interaction analysis

This study examines the simultaneous effects of need for closure (NFC) and relative cognitive capacity on invested effort and task performance within the integrative analysis framework using behavioral data. Two main results were obtained. First, the authors revealed a significant interaction effect between relative cognitive capacity (manipulated through task difficulty) and NFC (manipulated through time pressure, noise, and fear of invalidity as well as assessed by an individual differences measure) on effort investment. Second, contrary to dispositional NFC, manipulations yielded a "dual effect" because they negatively affected task performance as well as invested effort. The latter result was interpreted as an indication that noise and time pressure manipulations also tax cognitive resources. The two main findings are discussed and the authors go further into the divergences between dispositional and manipulated NFC.     

Motivation towards closure and cognitive processes: An individual differences approach

Two studies (N = 212) examined the relationships between elementary cognitive processes and individual differences in the need for cognitive closure. The results indicated that the need for closure is linked with certain cognitive deficits, specifically a restricted pool of cognitive resources allocated to a current activity. It was also found that these cognitive limitations tend to be compensated for by a particularly efficient process of information-selection from the environment. However, the selection process is costly, thus in a situation of drainage of cognitive resources its effectiveness also drops and the selection advantage of high (vs. low) need for closure individuals is eliminated.     

Motivation towards closure and cognitive processes: An individual differences approach

Two studies (N = 212) examined the relationships between elementary cognitive processes and individual differences in the need for cognitive closure. The results indicated that the need for closure is linked with certain cognitive deficits, specifically a restricted pool of cognitive resources allocated to a current activity. It was also found that these cognitive limitations tend to be compensated for by a particularly efficient process of information-selection from the environment. However, the selection process is costly, thus in a situation of drainage of cognitive resources its effectiveness also drops and the selection advantage of high (vs. low) need for closure individuals is eliminated.     

Disparate roads to certainty processing strategy choices under need for closure

This paper describes a programme of research addressing an intriguing inconsistency in research findings about cognitive processes under a high need for cognitive closure (NFC). While early studies demonstrated that individuals who seek closure opt for closed-minded cognitive strategies, a growing body of research has identified a number of circumstances in which individuals who are high in NFC engage in effortful, open-minded information processing to an even greater extent than their low NFC counterparts. This has posed the challenge of delineating the circumstances under which people motivated to reduce uncertainty (i.e., attain closure) engage in effortful and open-minded cognition from those situations in which they rely on simplistic, low-effort strategies. This also calls for theoretical advancement in NFC theory. We discuss our proposed solution to this puzzle and the implications of this model for real-world social phenomena.     

The road to the unconscious self not taken: Discrepancies between self‐ and observer‐inferences about implicit dispositions from nonverbal behavioural cues

To what extent can individuals gain insight into their own or another person's implicit dispositions' We investigated whether self‐perceivers versus neutral observers can detect implicit dispositions from nonverbal behavioural cues contained in video feedback (cue validity) and whether these cues are in turn used as a valid basis for explicit dispositional inferences (cue utilization). Across three studies in the domains of extraversion and anxiety we consistently obtained reliable cue validity and cue utilization for neutral observers but not for self‐perceivers. An additional measure of state inferences in Study 3 showed that one reason for the lack of mediation in self‐perceivers is their reluctance to use their state inferences as a basis for more general trait inferences. We conclude that people have a ‘blind spot’ with respect to the nonverbal behavioural manifestations of their unconscious selves, even though neutral observers may readily detect and utilize this information for dispositional inferences. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

阴谋论的心理学探索

阴谋论最初非心理学术语,但自上世纪90年代以来渐渐进入心理学研究者的视野。在心理学的研究视角下,阴谋论被视为个体对将重大事件解释为有组织的密谋行动这类说法的接受与相信。研究者开发了阴谋论的测量工具,包括具体和一般层面的阴谋论问卷。对于阴谋论影响因素的探讨发现阴谋论与随和性、开放性、直觉思维、秩序需求等人格、认知、动机因素密切相关。且大量研究还探讨了阴谋论的影响后效,发现其会对个体在政治、健康、环保等层面的行为产生影响。未来研究者应加强对阴谋论的实验研究;且应逐步在国内开展研究,以探讨中国人阴谋论倾向的特殊成因;最后应积极探索阴谋论的干预策略,这将会给培养国民理性平和的社会心态带来启示。     

Need for closure effect on collective action intentions and behavior toward immigrants in Italy: The mediation of binding foundations and political conservatism

Why are people (de)motivated to mobilize in favor of immigrants? Addressing this question, we investigated the role of individuals' epistemic motivation (i.e., need for closure) in influencing the process of becoming motivated to participate in collective action in favor of immigrants in Italy. Specifically, the mediational role of binding moral foundations and political conservatism in explaining the relationship between need for closure and collective action in favor of immigrants was examined in three studies. It was hypothesized that a heightened need for closure would be indirectly and negatively associated with collective action in favor of immigrants, sequentially mediated first through binding moral foundations and then political conservatism. We found support for this prediction when either dispositional measure (Study 1 and Study 2) or an experimental induction (Study 3) of need for closure were used, and when both collective action intentions (Study 1 and Study 3) and behavior (Study 2) were assessed. The results suggest that need for closure constitutes a powerful motivational force that leads individuals to engage in uncertainty‐reducing evaluations and actions. We discuss these results regarding how they are related with previous work and their implications for research and practice.     

Neurophysiological measures of involuntary and voluntary attention allocation and dispositional differences in need for cognition

Need for cognition (NFC) refers to stable individual differences in the intrinsic motivation to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors and has been a useful predictor of dispositional differences in information processing. Although cognitive resource allocation conceptualized as cognitive effort is assumed to be the key mediator of NFC-specific processing, to date no research has systematically addressed its underpinnings. Using a neurocognitive paradigm and recording event-related potentials associated with bottom-up and top-down-driven aspects of attention, the present research contributes to filling this gap. In Study 1, high-NFC individuals showed larger P3a amplitudes to contextually novel events, indicating greater involuntary (automatic) attention allocation. This effect was replicated in Study 2, where NFC also was positively correlated with the P3b to target stimuli, indicating voluntary (controlled) processes of attention allocation. Thus, our findings provide first evidence for neurophysiological correlates of NFC and can improve the understanding of NFC-specific processing.