Social control of health behavior: associations with conscientiousness and neuroticism

Despite considerable research demonstrating associations of conscientiousness and neuroticism with health-related behavior, our understanding of how and why these traits are related to lifestyle is limited. This study examined the social regulation of health behavior in a probability sample of 509 household residents who completed a Random Digit Dial (RDD) telephone survey. Results suggest that the social regulation of health behavior experienced by highly conscientious individuals has more to do with their own internalized notions of responsibility and obligation to others than to specific actions by others aimed at influencing their health habits. In contrast, individuals with higher neuroticism experience more overt attempts by others to influence their health habits but have more negative affective and behavioral responses to these social influence attempts. Findings suggest that elucidating the distinct social influence processes that operate for conscientiousness and neuroticism may further understanding of how these traits are related to health behaviors and status.     

Psychological correlates of negative self-assessed health

The recent growth in the area now subsumed under the title health psychology can be seen to reflect real changes in the societal pre-occupation with health promotion. Established models within health psychology have tended to focus on the interface between the individual and the health care system. Moreover, as a consequence of employing the tripartite model of health, illness and sick-role behaviour as separate entities, research has tended to construct barriers between these behaviours. In is necessary to develop psychological models within health psychology rather than use the education model of the medical orthodoxy. This study explored the distinguishing features of a sub-group of women within the sample who were identified as having relatively negative self-assessed health. Data was obtained on their experience of health and illness, their involvement in health-related behaviours (HRB) and their health beliefs. It was shown that this group was more likely to be involved in damaging HRB, but involvement in positive HRB did not differ from the main sample. They tended to anticipate an improvement over time from their present health status which they felt had been influenced by their own behaviour and by their experience of motherhood.     

Participation restrictions at work indicate participation restrictions in other domains of life

Health problems are often associated with activity limitations and participation restrictions, as defined in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). This often affects the workplace in the form of sick leave or a reduction in productivity. The question is, "to what extent are participation restrictions at work related to participation restrictions in other domains of life?" A total of 382 primary health care patients (aged 18-65) were asked to provide information on their employment status, perceived health-related workplace problems and sick leave status. Health-dependent participation restrictions across different domains of life were assessed using the Index for Measuring Participation Restrictions (IMET) self rating questionnaire. Currently unemployed patients reported significantly higher degrees of participation restrictions across all domains of life than the employed participants. Employed patients with workplace problems scored higher than patients without workplace problems. The domain of work encompassed the highest level of impairment, while the lowest was observed in personal relationships. Workplace problems occur frequently for primary health care patients. They coincide with participation restrictions in other domains of life. For patients who complain about their capacity to work, diagnosis and treatment must not only focus on the work domain, but also enquire into and consider participation restrictions in other domains of life.     

From emotional intelligence to intelligent choice of partner

The authors examined interpersonal correlates of emotional intelligence (EI) in a sample of individuals with a history of depression. The authors focused on potentially adaptive relationship dynamics associated with EI that may help protect these vulnerable individuals from further distress. Participants with high EI, as measured with the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, saw their partners as less hostile, critical, and rejecting in their support styles than did participants with low EI. Partners' own reports mostly corroborated these findings. Unexpectedly, although partners of high EI participants reported offering less active and directive support than did partners of low EI participants, high EI participants perceived their partners as more supportive than did low EI participants. Partners of emotionally intelligent participants also reported being more conscientious and open to experiences, offering some evidence of the stress-buffering hypothesis associated with higher EI.     

Relationships between locus of control,health value,and preventive health behaviors among women

This study examines the relationships between locus of control expectancies, rated health value, and reported participation in preventive health behaviors among a healthy sample of undergraduate women. The prediction that participation in preventive health behaviors would be a joint function of an internal health-related locus of control belief and holding health in high value was not supported. Instead, individuals who valued their health reported participating in a greater number of health-enhancing behaviors compared to those who valued their health less. Respondents' scores on a health value scale in combination with their rated health status proved to be better predictors of health behaviors than their locus of control beliefs. Limitations of locus of control research with young, healthy individuals are discussed and further investigation into the utility and validity of health value scales is recommended.     

Global positive expectancies in adolescence and health-related behaviours: longitudinal models of latent growth and cross-lagged effects

Constructs representative of global positive expectancies (GPE) such as dispositional optimism and hope have been theoretically and empirically linked to many positive mental and physical health outcomes. However such expectancies' health implications for adolescents, as well as their trajectory over time, are less well understood than for adult populations. This study tested whether GPE predict the key indicators of adolescents' future physical health status, their health-related behaviours. A prospective longitudinal study design was employed whereby a diverse population-based cohort (N?=?744; mean age at baseline?=?12) completed three surveys over approximately 18 months. Rigorous tests of causal predominance and reciprocal effects were conducted through latent growth and cross-panel structural equation models. Results showed GPE systematically decreased during the course of the study, yet higher initial levels of GPE predicted less alcohol drinking, healthier food choice and greater physical activity over time. GPE's protective relationships towards health protective behaviours (vs. health risk behaviours that also included tobacco smoking) appear more independent from depressive symptomatology, and the primary findings were robust across socio-demographic groups.     

Anticipated,experienced, and remembered subjective effort and discomfort on sustained attention versus working memory tasks

This study examined individuals’ ability to accurately anticipate how cognitively effortful and uncomfortable a task will feel based on a short sample of the task. Participants completed a sustained attention or working memory task. Post-practice, participants rated the effort and discomfort that they anticipated their task would require and engender, respectively. Participants also rated their effort and discomfort during task-administration and the effort and discomfort they recalled feeling after task-administration. Sustained attention task participants anticipated significantly less effort than working memory task participants. Sustained attention task participants felt significantly more effort during the task and remembered feeling more effort than they had anticipated. Working memory task participants felt significantly less effort during the task than they had anticipated. Sustained attention task participants anticipated, experienced, and recalled feeling more discomfort than working memory task participants. Individuals’ anticipation of effort required depends on the task and is different from the effort they actually feel during the task and later recall feeling.     

Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: a longitudinal study

We examined the development of self-esteem in adolescence and young adulthood. Data came from the Young Adults section of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which includes 8 assessments across a 14-year period of a national probability sample of 7,100 individuals age 14 to 30 years. Latent growth curve analyses indicated that self-esteem increases during adolescence and continues to increase more slowly in young adulthood. Women and men did not differ in their self-esteem trajectories. In adolescence, Hispanics had lower self-esteem than Blacks and Whites, but the self-esteem of Hispanics subsequently increased more strongly, so that at age 30 Blacks and Hispanics had higher self-esteem than Whites. At each age, emotionally stable, extraverted, and conscientious individuals experienced higher self-esteem than emotionally unstable, introverted, and less conscientious individuals. Moreover, at each age, high sense of mastery, low risk taking, and better health predicted higher self-esteem. Finally, the results suggest that normative increase in sense of mastery accounts for a large proportion of the normative increase in self-esteem.     

Age and health care beliefs: self-efficacy as a mediator of low desire for control

The relation between individuals' age, desire for control, information, and perceived self-efficacy was examined using a cross-sectional comparison of 116 noninstitutionalized adults, ages 20 to 99. We found that individuals over 60 years of age desired less health-related control than did younger adults, and preferred that health professionals make decisions for them. Differences in desire for health-related information were in the same direction but were not significant. Older adults also desired less control in general day-to-day living. Perceived self-efficacy was also lower for individuals over 60 years of age. Results suggested that perceived self-efficacy mediated the age differences in health-related desire for control. Mediation of general desire for control, however, was not strong. Cohort and developmental explanations are provided for these findings. It is suggested that those individuals most at risk for chronic illnesses and hospitalization are also those who are most likely to fail to take an active role in their health care.     

Standing Out From the Crowd: How Comparison to Prototypes Can Decrease Health-Risk Behavior in Young Adults

This research tested whether social comparison can encourage adolescents to make less risky health decisions. Two studies demonstrated that when young adults compare themselves with drinkers, they become less willing to drink if they perceive dissimilarity between themselves and those drinkers. When participants in Study 1 compared with someone who drinks regularly, their perceived similarity to prototypical drinkers was positively related to their willingness to drink. In Study 2, participants identified or contrasted themselves with prototypical drinkers; those encouraged to contrast who also felt less similar to the prototype reported less willingness to drink. These studies support the prototype/willingness model's assumption that prototypes affect willingness to drink through social comparison.     

Weight Bias Internalization and Psychosocial,Physical, and Behavioral Health: A Meta-Analysis of Cross-Sectional and Prospective Associations

Coinciding with widespread efforts to address obesity, weight bias internalization (a process of self-devaluation wherein individuals apply weight-biased stereotypes to themselves) has gained increased attention as a robust correlate of poor health outcomes. The present meta-analysis aimed to provide the largest quantitative synthesis of associations between weight bias internalization and health-related correlates. Studies that provided zero-order correlations for cross-sectional or prospective associations between weight bias internalization and physical, psychosocial, and behavioral health correlates were included in the meta-analysis. Meta-regression determined whether these associations differed based on demographic (sex/gender, race, age), anthropometric (body mass index), and study-level (publication status, sample type, study quality) moderators. Data for 149 (sub)samples were identified that included between 14 and 18,766 participants (M sample size = 534.96, SD = 1,914.43; M age = 34.73, SD = 12.61, range = 9.95–65.70). Results indicated that greater weight bias internalization was concurrently associated with worse psychosocial (e.g., negative and positive mental health, social functioning), physical (e.g., BMI, weight maintenance, health-related quality of life [HRQoL]), and behavioral health (e.g., disordered eating behaviors, healthy eating, physical activity) across most constructs, with effects ranging from small to very large in magnitude. Preliminary evidence also suggested that greater weight bias internalization was subsequently associated with less weight loss and increased negative mental health. Notable variations in the nature and magnitude of these associations were identified based on the health-related correlate and moderator under consideration. These findings indicate that weight bias internalization is linked to multiple adverse health-related outcomes and provide insight into priorities for future research, theory building, and interventions in this area.     

The effect of rebranding generic medicines on drug efficacy and side effects

Objectives: Subjective age is an important correlate of health, well-being, and longevity. So far, little is known about short-term variability in subjective age and the circumstances under which individuals feel younger/older in daily life. This study examined whether (a) older adults’ felt age fluctuates on a day-to-day basis, (b) daily changes in health, stressors, and affect explain fluctuations in felt age, and (c) the daily associations between felt age and health, stressors, or affect are time-ordered.

Method: Using an eight-day daily diary approach, N = 43 adults (60–96 years, M = 74.65, SD = 8.19) filled out daily questionnaires assessing subjective age, health, daily stressors, and affect. Data were analysed using multilevel modelling.

Main outcome measures: Subjective age, health, daily stressors, affect.

Results: Intra-individual variability in felt age was not explained by time but by short-term variability in other variables. Specifically, on days when participants experienced more than average health problems, stress, or negative affect they felt older than on days with average health, stress, or negative affect. No time-ordered effects were found.

Conclusion: Bad health, many stressors, and negative affective experiences constitute circumstances under which older adults feel older than they typically do. Thus, daily measures of subjective age could be markers of health and well-being.     

Dynamic links between memory and functional limitations in old age: longitudinal evidence for age-based structural dynamics from the AHEAD study

This study examined competing substantive hypotheses about dynamic (i.e., time-ordered) links between memory and functional limitations in old age. We applied the Bivariate Dual Change Score Model to 13-year longitudinal data from the Asset and Health Dynamics Among the Oldest Old Study (AHEAD; N = 6,990; ages 70 - 95). Results revealed that better memory predicted shallower increases in functional limitations. Little evidence was found for the opposite direction that functional limitations predict ensuing changes in memory. Spline models indicated that dynamic associations between memory and functional limitations were substantively similar between participants aged 70-79 and those aged 80-95. Potential covariates (gender, education, health conditions, and depressive symptoms) did not account for these differential lead-lag associations. Applying a multivariate approach, our results suggest that late-life developments in two key components of successful aging are intrinsically interrelated. Our discussion focuses on possible mechanisms why cognitive functioning may serve as a source of age-related changes in health both among the young-old and the old-old.     

Health numeracy and cognitive decline in advanced age

ABSTRACT

The study aimed at investigating health numeracy in cognitively well performing healthy participants aged from 50 to 95 years as well as in participants with cognitive impairment, but no dementia (CIND). In cognitively well performing participants (n = 401), demographic variables and cognitive abilities (executive functions, reading comprehension, mental calculation, vocabulary) were associated with health numeracy. Older age, lower education, female gender as well as lower cognitive functions predicted low health numeracy. The effect of older age was partly mediated by executive functions and calculation abilities. Participants with CIND (n = 51) performed significantly lower than healthy controls in health numeracy. The findings suggest that cognitively well performing old individuals have difficulties in understanding health-related numerical information. The risk of misunderstanding health-related numerical information is increased in persons with CIND. As these population groups are frequently involved in health care decisions, particular attention has to be paid to providing numerical information in comprehensible form.     

An insider's view on physical activity in later life

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to explore the meanings people over 70 years of age attribute to their experience when endeavouring to engage in a more physically active lifestyle.MethodDrawing on the tenets of phenomenology meant the empiricism of the study was grounded in the everyday details and social context of the lived experience. Seventeen women and nine men participated in interviews that were audio recorded then analysed using a process of inductive analysis and constant comparison. This process resulted in the emergence of four themes that are used to elucidate the essence of the participants’ experiences.ResultsWithin 2 months of seeking advice about an exercise programme the majority of participants were unable to persevere with any commitment or regularity to their proposed lifestyle change. The reasons for this were numerous and varied. Rather than getting caught up in the pursuit of what might be termed optimal health, most participants held a belief that for their older body to maintain a good level of functional ability, it must be a busy body. This highlights a difference between the scientific meaning, and the socially and culturally constructed meanings with regards to what levels physical activity are necessary for good health in later life.ConclusionThe knowledge, beliefs and attitudes older people have regarding the importance of physical activity in later life do not necessarily mean leading an active lifestyle. Furthermore, it is evident there are variety of perspectives with regards to how the concept of optimum health permeates the way we have come to define physical activity and health-related fitness in later life.     

Problem-Solving in the Nursing Home Environment: Age and Experience Differences in Emotional Reactions and Responses

This study examined age differences in the perception of problems occurring in a nursing home. A predominantly female sample (N = 120) varying in age and in exposure to nursing homes watched videotaped vignettes depicting a woman experiencing problems in a nursing home. For each vignette, research participants reported how they thought the protagonist felt, how she should respond, and how confident they would feel to respond similarly if faced with the same situation. Age, more than experience, was related to differences in perceptions, with older adults reporting that the protagonist felt sad more often than did younger adults, who perceived the protagonist as feeling angry. Younger age was associated with more action-oriented coping strategies. No age differences emerged for how well the participants felt they could handle the situation. Results suggest that nursing home employees differ from the residents in both their perceptions of the problems and recommended strategies used to deal with the problem.     

Relation of perceived emotional intelligence and health-related quality of life of middle-aged women

This study examined the relationship between perceived emotional intelligence and health-related quality of life in middle-aged women. 99 middle-aged Spanish women, who studied in two adult schools, volunteered to participate. 49 were premenopausal and 45 were postmenopausal. These women completed the Trait Meta-Mood Scale and Health Survey SF-36. Scores were analyzed according to social, physical, and mental health, menopausal status, and scores on perceived emotional intelligence. Then, the data regarding the mental and physical health of the premenopausal and postmenopausal women were compared after controlling for age. No associations between menopausal status and health-related quality of life were found. Perceived skill at mood repair was significantly associated with scores on health-related quality of life in these middle-aged women. These findings provide empirical evidence that aspects of perceived emotional intelligence may account for the health-related quality of life in midlife including social, physical, and psychological symptoms.     

Childhood intelligence and adult health: The mediating roles of education and socioeconomic status

The longitudinal relation between childhood intelligence and various health outcomes in adulthood is now well-established. One mediational model that accounts for this relation proposes that intelligence has cumulative indirect effects on adult health via subsequent educational attainment and adult socioeconomic status (SES). The aim of the present study was to examine whether and the extent to which educational attainment and SES mediate the impact of childhood intelligence on three dimensions of adult health in Luxembourg, a country with high-quality universal public health care. We used data from 745 participants in the Luxembourgish MAGRIP study. At the age of 12, participants completed a comprehensive intelligence test. At the age of 52, they reported their educational careers, SES, and functional, subjective, and physical health status. Using structural equation modeling, we investigated the direct and indirect effects (via educational attainment and adult SES) of childhood intelligence on adult health. We found that higher childhood intelligence predicted better functional, subjective, and physical health in adulthood. These effects were entirely mediated via educational attainment and SES. The mediational processes differed depending on the health dimension under investigation: Whereas SES was crucial in mediating the effect of intelligence on functional and subjective health, educational attainment was crucial in mediating the effect on physical health. These findings held up when considering adult intelligence and were similar for women and men. Our results suggest that even excellent public health care cannot fully offset the cumulative effects of childhood intelligence on adult health. Further studies are needed to investigate the relative importance of different mediators in the intelligence–health relation while including a broader set of objective health measures.     

“Not performing worse but feeling older !” the negative effect of the induction of a negative aging stereotype

The present research investigated the effect of the induction of a negative stereotype on older adults’ performance during an endurance task, and how this stereotype influenced older adults’ subjective age. Thirty-four old women were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions: a negative stereotype condition and a nullified-stereotype condition. They performed an endurance task consisting of maintaining 30% of their maximal strength, as long as possible. Then, they answered a questionnaire including subjective age measurement. Contrary to expectations, the induction of the negative stereotype did not influence participants’ endurance performance. However, participants in the negative stereotype condition felt older than participants in the nullified-stereotype condition. As subjective age is relevant to late-life health outcomes, such as walking speed or mortality risk, it seems necessary to implement some strategies to decrease the negative effect of the negative stereotype on subjective age.