Coping self-efficacy mediates the effects of negative cognitions on posttraumatic distress

Although cognitive distortions have predicted posttraumatic distress after various types of traumatic events, the mechanisms through which cognitive distortions influence posttraumatic distress remain unclear. We hypothesized that coping self-efficacy, the belief in one's own ability to manage posttraumatic recovery demands, would operate as a mediator between negative cognitions (about self, about the world, and self-blame beliefs) and posttraumatic distress. In the cross-sectional Study 1, data collected among 66 adult female victims of child sexual abuse indicated that coping self-efficacy mediated the effects of negative cognitions about self and about the world on posttraumatic distress. The same pattern of results was found in a longitudinal Study 2, conducted among 70 survivors of motor vehicle accidents. Coping self-efficacy measured at 1 month after the trauma mediated the effects of 7-day negative cognitions about self and about the world on 3-month posttraumatic distress. In both studies self-blame was not related to posttraumatic distress and the effect of self-blame on posttraumatic distress was not mediated by coping self-efficacy. The results provide insight into a mechanism through which negative cognitions may affect posttraumatic distress and highlight the potential importance of interventions aimed at enhancing coping self-efficacy beliefs.     

Social Support and Postdeployment Coping Self-Efficacy as Predictors of Distress Among Combat Veterans

This study evaluated the indirect effect of received social support on distress severity (i.e., posttraumatic stress and depression symptom severity) among 89 combat veterans. Through integrating the social support deterioration deterrence model and the enabling hypothesis, mediating roles of perceived social support and self-efficacy specific to postdeployment adaptation were investigated. Results showed that (a) received social support and perceived social support were not related, and (b) both received and perceived social support indirectly predicted distress severity (posttraumatic stress and depression symptom severity) through postdeployment coping self-efficacy. Specifically, high received and perceived social support independently predicted high postdeployment coping self-efficacy, and high postdeployment coping self-efficacy predicted lower distress severity levels. Theory enhancement and future research needs are discussed.     

The impact of posttraumatic growth,transformational leadership,and self-efficacy on PTSD and depression symptom severity among combat Veterans

Previous research has established self-efficacy as essential to postdeployment adjustment among Veterans, and perceived transformational leadership is well known for its positive effects on follower outcomes across contexts. However, little is known regarding how transformational leadership may relate to posttraumatic growth and self-efficacy in fostering psychological wellbeing among combat Veterans. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of transformational leadership in predicting posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms among combat Veterans, as well as how posttraumatic growth and postdeployment coping self-efficacy may influence these relations. The study sample consisted of 130 combat Veterans recruited from a university, Veterans Affairs medical center, and the greater community. Path analysis based on bootstrapped resampling revealed postdeployment coping self-efficacy and perceived transformational leadership as predictors of lower PTSD and depression symptom severity. In addition, mediation modeling revealed that postdeployment coping self-efficacy mediated the relation between transformational leadership and both PTSD and depression, while posttraumatic growth did not predict PTSD symptoms. These findings may aid in the prediction of PTSD and depression symptoms among Veterans, which may then influence pre-deployment leadership training among military personnel as well as clinical treatment protocols for Veterans.     

PTSD SYMPTOMS AND SELF-RATED RECOVERY AMONG ADULT SEXUAL ASSAULT SURVIVORS: THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMATIC LIFE EVENTS AND PSYCHOSOCIAL VARIABLES

Prior research has demonstrated that self-blame is predictive of more posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and poorer recovery ( Frazier, 2003 ; Koss, Figueredo, & Prince, 2002 ), and perceived control over recovery is associated with less distress ( Frazier, 2003 ) in adult sexual assault (ASA) survivors. A structural equation model was tested to examine the role of traumatic events, self-blame, perceived control over recovery, and coping strategies on PTSD symptoms and self-rated recovery in women ASA survivors. Adaptive coping partially mediated the effects of other traumas, self-blame, and perceived control over recovery on PTSD symptoms and showed a small positive association with increased PTSD symptoms. As hypothesized, maladaptive coping partially mediated the effects of other traumas, self-blame, and perceived control over recovery on both PTSD symptoms and self-rated recovery; greater maladaptive coping was associated with increased PTSD symptoms and lower self-rated recovery. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Posttraumatic growth: why do people grow from their trauma?

In two experimental studies we found that participants who recalled a highly traumatic autobiographical event (trauma recall) compared with a lesser traumatic event (stress recall) reported having increasingly grown (posttraumatic growth, PTG). Moreover, participants who recalled a traumatic (vs. stressful) event perceived more death-related thoughts (Study 1) and reported coping with this event in a more emotion-focused and in a less problem-focused way (Study 2). Mediation analyzes revealed that the effect of trauma versus stress recall on PTG was mediated by emphasizing the positive, a subscale of emotion-focused coping. These results imply that growth resulting from traumatic events can be traced back to an illusion. No evidence was found that real PTG took place or that the effects shown resulted from death-related thoughts (terror management theory).     

社会支持对震后青少年创伤后应激障碍和创伤后成长的影响:自我效能感的中介作用

本研究采用创伤暴露问卷、社会支持问卷、自我效能感量表、创伤后应激障碍症状核查表和创伤后成长问卷,在汶川地震8.5年后对地震极重灾区的1185名中学生进行调查,考察社会支持对创伤后应激障碍（PTSD）和创伤后成长（PTG）的影响,并检验自我效能感在其中的中介作用。结果发现：在控制创伤暴露程度、性别和年龄等变量后,社会支持不仅可以直接负向预测PTSD、正向预测PTG,也可以通过自我效能感的中介作用负向预测PTSD、正向预测PTG。这表明,自我效能感在社会支持与PTSD、社会支持与PTG的关系中都具有部分中介效应。     

When seeking influences believing and promotes posttraumatic adaptation

Background: Theory and evidence link social support processes and self-efficacy appraisals in the promotion of adaptation following traumatic events. Dynamic causal processes, however, have not been examined longitudinally or in the context of mass-violence. This study tested whether quantity of social support seeking indirectly reduced distress severity among student survivors of mass university shootings. Hypotheses specified that the indirect effects of social support seeking on distress severity would occur through positively influencing perceived social support and self-efficacy, and that these effects would emerge and become stronger as posttraumatic stress symptom severity increased. Design: Path analysis via Mplus 7.2 was used to test the hypothesized moderated-serial-mediation model (conditional indirect effects). Methods: The sample (N = 1191) consisted of students enrolled at Virginia Tech during the 16 April 2007 shootings. Data were collected via online surveys at two time points, 3–4 months and 1-year post-shootings. Results: Hypotheses were supported, showing that the indirect effects of social support seeking on distress reduction occurred through perceived social support, which in turn influenced self-efficacy. These effects emerged and grew in strength as PTS severity increased. Conclusions: Clinical implications, including the need to consider contextual determinants of posttraumatic recovery, are discussed.     

Perceived social support, self-efficacy, and adjustment to abortion

Prior to their having a 1st trimester abortion, women's perceptions of social support from their partner, family, and friends and self-efficacy for coping were assessed. Depression, mood, physical complaints, and anticipation of negative consequences were measured after the 30-min recovery period. As predicted, perceived social support enhanced adjustment indirectly through its effects on self-efficacy. Women who perceived high support from their family, friends, and partners had higher self-efficacy for coping. Higher self-efficacy, in turn, predicted better adjustment on the psychological measures but not on the physical complaint measure. No direct path between social support and adjustment was observed. In addition, women who told close others of their abortion but perceived them as less than completely supportive had poorer postabortion psychological adjustment than either women who did not tell or women who told and perceived complete support.     

Impact of perceived self-efficacy in coping with stressors on components of the immune system

This experiment examined the impact of experimentally varied perceived self-efficacy in exercising control over stressors on components of the immunological system. Immunological changes while coping with phobic stressors were measured within an intrasubject control design that included a baseline phase, an efficacy-acquisition phase, and a maximal-efficacy phase. In each of these phases, perceived coping self-efficacy, level of autonomic and endocrine activation, and several components of the immunological system were measured. Development of strong perceived self-efficacy to control phobic stressors had an immunoenhancing effect. A slow growth of perceived self-efficacy, heart rate acceleration, and cortisol activation attenuated immunological system status during the efficacy-acquisition phase. Rapid growth of perceived self-efficacy also predicted maintenance of immunoenhancement during the maximal perceived self-efficacy phase.     

Racial and body image differences in coping for women diagnosed with breast cancer.

Although more White women develop breast cancer, African American women more frequently die of the disease (American Cancer Society, 2003). Despite higher morbidity among African American women, few studies have included racially diverse samples. The purposes of this study were to explore racial and body image differences in coping and self-efficacy in coping and racial differences in body image perceptions among breast cancer patients. The 92 participants ranged in age from 28 to 86 years (M=57.64, SD=12.48). Participants with higher body image perceptions had significantly higher self-efficacy in coping compared with participants with lower body image perceptions. There were no significant racial or ethnic differences in coping, self-efficacy in coping, or body image perceptions.     

Does Self-Reported Posttraumatic Growth Reflect Genuine Positive Change?

ABSTRACT— In this study, we evaluated the validity of self-reported posttraumatic growth (PTG) by assessing the relation between perceived growth and actual growth from pre- to posttrauma. Undergraduate students completed measures tapping typical PTG domains at Time 1 and Time 2 (2 months later). We compared change in those measures with scores on the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996 ) for those participants who reported a traumatic event between Time 1 and Time 2 ( n = 122). PTGI scores generally were unrelated to actual growth in PTG-related domains. Moreover, perceived growth was associated with increased distress from pre- to posttrauma, whereas actual growth was related to decreased distress, a pattern suggesting that perceived and actual growth reflect different processes. Finally, perceived (but not actual) growth was related to positive reinterpretation coping. Thus, the PTGI, and perhaps other retrospective measures, does not appear to measure actual pre- to posttrauma change.     

The Going Gets Tough,So Let's Go Shopping: On Materialism,Coping, and Consumer Behaviors Under Traumatic Stress

This study investigated the way in which exposure to traumatic stress, posttraumatic reactions, and materialistic values impact coping and maladaptive consumption behaviors in a real-life traumatic situation. One hundred thirty-nine Israelis were sampled from a town under constant rocket fire (a high-stress environment), and 187 comparison respondents were sampled from a low-stress location. Our data show a main effect for materialism for all of the distress and maladaptive consumer behaviors under study, as well as for most coping behaviors with the exception of interpersonal expressive coping. In the high-stress group, interpersonal expressive coping, reflecting an inclination to utilize social support, was highest among mildly materialistic individuals. Highly materialistic persons were, presumably, more oriented to objects than humans, rendering a more support-seeking way of coping less relevant for them. Highly materialistic participants in the high-stress group reported the highest levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms. The results of this study also suggest that the pleasures of shopping cannot attenuate posttraumatic distress and that maladaptive shopping behaviors increase with the level of traumatic exposure.     

Self-efficacy expectations and coping with career-related events

The process of self-efficacy expectation development, coping with a difficult task, and task performance is examined using a path analytic framework. A model of this process is examined with a job interview task as a way of assessing the generalizability of self-efficacy theory to career-related behavior. Results show that self-efficacy expectation theory generalizes to a career-related task, and that emotion-focused coping mediates the relationship between self-efficacy expectations and perceived performance, but not performance as assessed by the interviewer. The importance of self-efficacy expectations and emotion-focused coping as mediating the relationship of perceived past performance and pretask anxiety with subsequent behavior and outcomes is discussed.     

Perceived Ability to Cope With Trauma Among U.S. Combat Veterans

The Perceived Ability to Cope With Trauma (PACT) scale measures perceived forward-focused and trauma-focused coping. This measure may also have significant utility measuring positive adaption to life-threatening trauma, such as combat. Our objective was to examine perceived ability to cope with trauma, as measured by the PACT, and the relationships between this perceived ability and clinically pertinent information (anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) among U.S. military veterans. Data were provided from 71 combat veterans, consisting of 47 veterans with PTSD and 24 veterans without PTSD who had subthreshold symptoms of the disorder. All veterans completed standardized clinical interviews as well as a battery of well-validated self-report symptom measures. We found that veterans with PTSD had significantly lower PACT scores than veterans without PTSD; those without PTSD self-reported more ability to engage in forward-focused and trauma-focused coping than those with PTSD. Importantly, we also showed relationships between the PACT scores and indices of psychological difficulties as both Forward Focus and Trauma Focus coping scores negatively correlated with PTSD, depression, anxiety, and alexithymia. Finally, the Forward Focus PACT scale improved prediction of PTSD severity over combat exposure alone. The PACT, especially the Forward Focus scale, appears to be a useful measure of perceived positive coping ability with trauma in combat-exposed veterans who report symptoms of traumatic stress, extending the utility of the measure from normative to clinical populations. The importance of adopting forward-focused coping is discussed.     

STRUCTURAL MODELS OF THE RELATIONS OF ASSAULT SEVERITY, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AVOIDANCE COPING, SELF-BLAME, AND PTSD AMONG SEXUAL ASSAULT SURVIVORS

A number of studies have identified which survivors of sexual assault are more likely to develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Most correlates that have been identified have been at the individual level. Insufficient attention has been given to whether survivors' social interactions impact their individual responses to assault and subsequent levels of psychological symptomatology. In this study, a large, diverse sample of community-residing women ( N = 636) was surveyed. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships between assault severity, global support, negative social reactions, avoidance coping, self-blame, traumatic life experiences, and PTSD symptoms. The results suggest that negative social reactions and avoidance coping are the strongest correlates of PTSD symptoms and that the association typically observed between victim self-blame and PTSD symptoms may be partially due to the effect of negative social reactions from others. These reactions may contribute to both self-blame and PTSD. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.     

大学生生命愿景、自我效能感与应对方式的关系

采用问卷法以377名大学生为被试研究了生命愿景、一般自我效能感及应对方式的关系。研究结果为:1)大学生生命愿景整体水平较高,存在着性别和年级差异,女生的生命愿景显著高于男生;大一学生显著高于大四;2)生命愿景不同水平的大学生在一般自我效能感上存在显著性差异(t=7.35,p<0.001);在积极应对与消极应对因子上有显著性差异。3)大学生生命愿景与一般自我效能感呈显著正相关,并对自我效能感具有良好的预测作用;4)大学生生命愿景与积极应对方式呈显著正相关,与消极应对方式呈显著负相关;5)大学生生命愿景通过一般自我效能感对应对方式产生间接影响。结论为生命愿景作为应对源对大学生应对校园压力发挥积极作用。     

Mechanisms governing empowerment effects: a self-efficacy analysis

This experiment tested the hypotheses that perceived coping and cognitive control self-efficacy govern the effects of personal empowerment over physical threats. Women participated in a mastery modeling program in which they mastered the physical skills to defend themselves successfully against unarmed sexual assailants. Multifaceted measures of theoretically relevant variables were administered within a staggered intragroup control design to test the immediate and long-term effects of the empowerment program and the mechanisms through which it produced its effects. Mastery modeling enhanced perceived coping and cognitive control efficacy, decreased perceived vulnerability to assault, and reduced the incidence of intrusive negative thinking and anxiety arousal. These changes were accompanied by increased freedom of action and decreased avoidant behavior. Path analyses of causal structures revealed a dual path of regulation of behavior by perceived coping self-efficacy, one mediated through perceived vulnerability and risk discernment and the other through perceived cognitive control self-efficacy and intrusive negative thinking.     

The Relationship Between Secondary Traumatic Stress and Personal Posttraumatic Growth: Personality Factors as Moderators

This present study examined the relationship between secondary traumatic stress, personality factors, and personal posttraumatic growth for persons indirectly exposed to traumatic life events. A sample of 162 nurses and physicians completed the self-report measures describing symptoms of secondary traumatic stress, personality factors and vicarious posttraumatic growth. The results indicated that secondary traumatic stress negatively correlated with vicarious posttraumatic growth. Moreover, this relation is moderated by personality factors. A low level of secondary traumatic stress symptoms is associated with a higher level of perceived posttraumatic growth for participants with a high level of openness, agreeability and conscientiousness. These findings emphasize the differences in perceiving posttraumatic growth in the context of secondary exposure to traumatic life events.     

Duty-Related Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in 911 Telecommunicators: The Roles of Childhood Trauma Exposure and Emotion-Focused Coping

A history of childhood trauma exposure has been linked to the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms in adulthood following new exposure. Unhealthy coping behaviors that could develop or be utilized in response to early trauma could lend themselves to psychological issues in adulthood. Emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies in relation to stressful duty-related situations are examined as indirect pathways through which childhood trauma exposure could be associated with duty-related posttraumatic stress symptoms in 911 telecommunicators (N = 808). Multiple mediation models revealed that 3 of the 4 emotion-focused coping strategies, but not the problem-focused strategies, functioned as significant mediators in the association between childhood exposure and duty-related posttraumatic stress symptoms. Pairwise comparisons showed that self-controlling and escape-avoidance strategies were the strongest pathways of the indirect childhood trauma exposure–posttraumatic stress symptoms association. Implications of results regarding coping in response to new traumatic events in adulthood and potential research and intervention directions are discussed.     

Trauma reactivity, avoidant coping, and PTSD symptoms: a moderating relationship?

In the immediate aftermath of a traumatic event, many individuals experience physiological reactivity in response to reminders of the traumatic event that typically lessens over time. However, an overreliance on avoidant coping strategies may interfere with the natural recovery process, particularly for those who are highly reactive to trauma reminders. In the current investigation, we examined avoidant coping as a moderator of the association between heart rate reactivity to a trauma monologue measured shortly after a traumatic event and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms measured several months later. Fifty-five female survivors of assault completed PTSD diagnostic interviews and a self-report coping measure and participated in a trauma monologue procedure that included continuous heart rate measurement. These procedures were completed within 1 month of the assault and again 3 months postassault. After we controlled for the effect of initial symptom levels, the interaction of heart rate reactivity to the trauma monologue and avoidant coping measured at Time 1 was associated with PTSD symptom severity at Time 2. Individuals who are relatively highly reliant on avoidant coping strategies and relatively highly reactive to trauma reminders may be at greatest risk of maintaining or potentially increasing their PTSD symptoms within the first few months following the trauma. These findings may help inform early intervention efforts for survivors of traumatic events.