Dimensions of acculturation: associations with health risk behaviors among college students from immigrant families

In the present study, we examined a bidimensional model of acculturation (which includes both heritage and U.S. practices, values, and identifications) in relation to hazardous alcohol use, illicit drug use, unsafe sexual behavior, and impaired driving. A sample of 3,251 first- and second-generation immigrant students from 30 U.S. colleges and universities completed measures of behavioral acculturation; cultural values (individualism, collectivism, and self-construal); ethnic and U.S. identity; and patterns of alcohol and drug use, engagement in potentially unsafe sexual activities, and driving while (or riding with a driver who was) intoxicated. Results indicate that heritage practices and collectivist values were generally protective against health risk behaviors, with collectivist values most strongly and consistently protective. Nonetheless, heritage identifications were positively associated with sexual risk taking for Hispanics. U.S. practices, values, and identifications were not consistently related to risk behavior participation. Results are discussed in terms of bidimensional approaches to acculturation, the immigrant paradox, and implications for counseling practice.     

ACCULTURATION AND EATING DISORDERS IN A MEXICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY SAMPLE

Our purpose was to investigate acculturation and eating disorders by examining the role of ethnic identity and by utilizing a bidimensional perspective toward two cultures. We predicted that orientation toward European American culture and lower ethnic identity would be positively associated with eating disorders. Participants were 188 Mexican American women recruited from the community (79 with eating disorders and 109 control women). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR and Eating Disorder Examination were used to establish diagnoses. The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans–II and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure assessed Anglo orientation, Mexican orientation, and ethnic identity. Orientation toward Anglo American culture was significantly associated with eating disorders, whereas orientation toward Mexican culture and strength of ethnic identity were not associated with eating disorder status. Findings point to the role of Anglo cultural orientation in the development of eating disorders and underscore the need for future research to utilize bidimensional models.     

Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment

The unidimensional model of acculturation posits that heritage and mainstream culture identifications have a strong inverse relation, whereas the bidimensional model posits that the 2 identifications are independent. The authors compared these models in 3 samples of ethnic Chinese (ns = 164, 150, and 204), 1 sample of non-Chinese East Asians (n = 70), and one diverse group of acculturating individuals (n = 140). Although the unidimensional measure showed a coherent pattern of external correlates, the bidimensional measure revealed independent dimensions corresponding to heritage and mainstream culture identification. These dimensions displayed patterns of noninverse correlations with personality, self-identity, and psychosocial adjustment. The authors conclude that the bidimensional model is a more valid and useful operationalization of acculturation.     

Confirming the structure of the dual process model of diversity amongst public sector South African employees

We set out to validate the structure of the Dual Process Model of Workplace Diversity in a South African work setting contrasting black and white African employees. The study participants were a convenience sample of 296 public service employees (black = 73.3%, female = 59%, 90.7% between the age 18 and 40 years; white = 25.7%, female = 58%, 67.1% between the age of 18 and 40 years). They completed measures of acculturation antecedents (positive and negative conditions), mediators (integration as positive strategy to deal with diversity and separation as negative strategy), and outcomes (work success and ill-health). Using multi-group path analysis, we found race-based invariance of the Dual Process Model, with black employees self-reporting diversity relations in a more favourable way compared to white employees. We conclude that the Dual Process Model is supported for research use in the South African workplaces.     

African American Acculturation and Black Racial Identity: A Preliminary Investigation

This exploratory study examined the relationship between acculturation and racial identity among African Americans. One hundred eighty‐seven African American students completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. F. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1990) and the African American Acculturation Scale (AAAS; H. Landrine & E. Klonoff, 1995). Acculturation was associated with 3 of the 5 AAAS subscales: Dissonance, Immersion, and Emersion; Immersion had the greatest correlation with acculturation. A simultaneous regression analysis showed that the Pre‐Encounter subscale was a significant predictor of acculturation.     

Factorial And Construct Validity Of The Body Parts Satisfaction Scale-Revised: An Examination Of Minority And Nonminority Women

In this two–part study, the psychometric properties of the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale, an extensively used body image attitudes measure, were tested. In Study 1–A, the two–factor structure of the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale–Revised (BPSS–R)—Satisfaction With Body and Satisfaction With Face—was established through exploratory procedures with a racially diverse sample of women (66.7% White American, 17.6% African American, 6.3% Mexican American, 5% Asian American, 0.6% Native American, and 3.8% unreported). In Study 1–B, the two–factors were validated through confirmatory procedures with a matched racially diverse sample of women (71.9% White American, 14.0% African American, 5.3% Mexican American, 4.7% Asian American, 1.2% Native American, and 2.9% unreported). Correlational analyses supported the construct and concurrent validity of the factors. To learn more about body image attitudes within racial/ethnic minorities, Study 2 examined the two–factor solution and psychometric properties in an independent sample of Mexican American women. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the two–factor solution fit the data, and correlations with other psychological and eating disorder measures supported the factor's construct and concurrent validity. Further, the two factors were unrelated to a measure of acculturation and to generational level living in the U.S., which suggests that body satisfaction may be independent of the acculturation process.     

NATIVITY AND YEARS IN THE RECEIVING CULTURE AS MARKERS OF ACCULTURATION IN ETHNIC ENCLAVES

The current study was conducted to ascertain the validity of two commonly used markers of acculturation (nativity and years in the receiving culture) in an enclave context. Relationships between these markers and a bidimensional measure of acculturation were examined in a convenience sample of Hispanic immigrant adolescents and their caregivers in Miami. Nativity was examined using adolescent-reported data; approximately half of the youth were U.S.-born and half foreign-born, but all of the caregivers were foreign-born. Years in the receiving culture was examined using both adolescent and caregiver data. Results indicated that nativity was significantly associated with adoption of receiving-culture practices, with a small to moderate effect size. Years in the receiving culture was significantly associated with adoption of receiving-culture practices only for adolescent girls and for female caregivers who immigrated as youth. Neither nativity nor years in the receiving culture explained even moderate amounts of variance in retention or loss of culture-of-origin practices.     

Predicting Immigrants' Attitudes Toward Multiculturalism Using a Measure of Its Perceived Benefits

We examined the predictors of attitudes toward multiculturalism in a sample of Asian and African immigrants. Multiculturalism was measured in terms of its perceived benefits as realized through Canadian government policy. As well as replicating past findings, two hypotheses derived from social identity theory are supported: Canadian identity and acculturation into Canadian society were significant predictors of attitudes toward multiculturalism. Counter to previous research findings, perceived discrimination was a negative predictor of these attitudes. The distinction between predicting support for attitudes toward multiculturalism measured as an ideology versus attitudes toward multiculturalism measured in terms of its perceived benefits is discussed.     

Emergent self-regulation skills among very young ethnic minority children: A confirmatory factor model

Emerging self-regulation skills were assessed in 407 low-income African American and Latino (primarily Mexican-origin) preschoolers. A battery of self-regulation tasks was administered when children were 2½ years old and again approximately 1 year later. Confirmatory factor analyses supported four components of self-regulation: inhibitory control, complex response inhibition, set shifting, and working memory. Complex response inhibition was too rare a skill in this sample to be detected reliably from measures collected at 2½ years of age, but it emerged from measures collected at 3½ years. In addition, significant ethnic differences were found in that African American children scored better on measures of complex response inhibition and set shifting, whereas Latino children scored better on measures of inhibitory control and working memory. Implications of study findings for measuring self-regulation in low-income ethnic diverse populations of young children, as well as for developing interventions to enhance self-regulation development, are discussed.     

Validity of the Self-Harm Behavior Questionnaire with Diverse Adolescents

Suicide and non-suicidal self-injurious behavior (NSSI) continue to be significant health problems for adolescents. Although there are many instruments available to assess self-harm behaviors, few have been validated for use with adolescents, and even fewer have been validated for use with different racial/ethnic groups. The Self-Harm Behavior Questionnaire (SHBQ) assesses NSSI, suicidal ideation, suicide threats, and past suicide attempts. Data from 1,386 racially/ethnically diverse adolescents (57.5% minority) were collected to examine the validity of the SHBQ in this age group. Analyses supported the four-factor structure, revealed the SHBQ is internally consistent, and provided evidence for convergent validity within Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic adolescents. However, slight differences were noted. Overall, the findings suggest the SHBQ is a useful assessment tool appropriate for use with Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic adolescents.     

Antecedents of intra/intergroup friendships and stress levels among ethnic and religious minority members

Two studies tested a model, whereby, identification with the minority group was predicted to impact on acculturation preferences, which in turn were proposed to impact involvement in intragroup friendships with other minority members, intergroup friendships with majority members and stress experienced by minority members. A direct path from minority identification to stress was also included in the model. The model was tested using structural equation modelling on survey data collected from Muslim women (N = 250) and from Somali minority members (N = 198) in Britain. Results supported predictions and revealed that identification was associated with more culture maintenance preference and less culture adoption preference. Culture maintenance preference was associated with involvement in intragroup friendships, and culture adoption preference was associated with involvement in intergroup friendships and increased stress. Practical applications of the findings are discussed.     

Exploring the factors contributing to empowerment of Turkish migrant women in the UK

This study examined the role of demographic factors (length of stay, education and language level), perceived discrimination, social support, four acculturation attitudes, and psychological distress in predicting empowerment among Turkish migrant women in the UK. The study sample comprised 248 Turkish migrant women (mean age: 34.38; SD: 7.6) living in London. Self-report questionnaires were used to assess empowerment, social support, acculturation attitude and psychological distress. The study hypothesized that perceived discrimination; acculturation attitudes of separation, assimilation and marginalization; and psychological distress would be negative predictors of empowerment and that social support and an integration acculturation attitude would be positive predictors of empowerment. To some extent, the study findings supported this hypothesis. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated psychological distress to be the most significant predictor of empowerment, with other significant predictors including level of education and social support. More specifically, lower levels of psychological distress and higher levels of education and social support appeared to predict greater empowerment. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that level of education and social support may function as protective factors and that psychological distress may function as a risk factor for empowerment in the migration context. The paper discusses the findings of this study in relation to the previous literature and notes their implications for future research and practice.     

Design and development of the European American values scale for Asian Americans

Existing instruments for measuring Asian American acculturation emphasize behavior acculturation to the exclusion of value acculturation. Most are based on the assumption that acquisition of European American behavior occurs simultaneously with the loss of Asian behavior. With the advent of the Asian Values Scale (AVS; B.S.K. Kim, D.R. Atkinson, & P.H. Yang, 1999), it is now possible to assess adherence to Asian cultural values. This article describes the development of a scale that can be used to measure Asian American adherence to European American values. The current scale, combined with the AVS, can be used to independently measure Asian American acculturation to European American values and enculturation in Asian values.     

Perceived cultural distance and acculturation among exchange students in Russia

The relations of perceived cultural distance, personality, acculturation orientations and outcomes were studied among exchange students (N = 187) in Russia who came from various countries in Asia, sub‐Saharan Africa, Latin America and the former Soviet Union. The hypothesis was supported that a larger perceived cultural distance between mainstream and immigrant culture is associated with less psychological (homesickness and stress) and sociocultural (behaviour with Russian students and behaviour with co‐nationals) adjustment. The statistical relations between perceived cultural distance, personality and sociocultural adjustment were much stronger for host domain behaviour than for home domain behaviour. Adjustment was higher for participants with more cultural empathy, openmindedness and flexibility. Adjustment showed statistically stronger associations with cultural distance than with acculturation orientations. It is concluded that cultural distance may be more salient than acculturation orientations in studies of heterogeneous groups of immigrants. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When attitudes do not fit: discordance of acculturation attitudes as an antecedent of intergroup threat

Recent research has shown that the perspectives of both minorities and majorities should be taken into account to reach a deeper understanding of the acculturation process and its consequences for intergroup relations. The authors report two experiments that investigated the impact of discordant acculturation attitudes on perceived threat. In Study 1 (N=183), Germans were asked for their attitudes toward Turks and Italians. Different levels of concordance of acculturation attitudes were induced by presenting participants with newspaper articles describing the acculturation attitude of the respective out-group and perceived threat was measured. In Study 2 (N=100), two fictitious immigrant groups were used as target groups. Results in both studies showed that discordance of acculturation attitudes leads to higher perceptions of intergroup threat than concordance of acculturation attitudes. Furthermore, both studies supported the assumption that a similar out-group is perceived as less threatening than a dissimilar out-group.     

Biculturalism and Perceived Competence of Latino Immigrant Adolescents

The present study investigated acculturation to the Hispanic and American cultures and self-perceptions of competence among 123 Latino immigrant adolescents. The study tested a contextual model of biculturalism by examining whether different acculturation styles predicted perceived competence in life spheres with different cultural demands. Perceived competence was assessed using Harter's (1988) Self-Perceptions of Competence Profile for Adolescents for the life spheres of school, peers (both Latino and non-Latino), and global self-worth. In addition, an analogous scale to assess perceptions of competence in the family was constructed for that sphere. The study found some support for a contextual model of acculturation. Acculturation to American culture predicted positive self-perceptions of competence with American peers, while acculturation to Hispanic culture predicted positive self-perceptions of competence with Latino peers. Perceived family competence, however, was predicted by acculturation to American rather than Hispanic culture. Results with respect to biculturalism are tentative, with a trend relating biculturalism to positive self-perceptions of global self-worth. However, because many of the conditions stipulated by the model were not met, results with respect to biculturalism raise questions about current approaches to operationalizing the construct.     

Chinese students in Japan: The mediator and the moderator between their personality and mental health

To clarify the influence of personality traits on the psychological acculturation of Chinese international students in Japan, the present study used three structuring questions: (a) What personality trait makes the students vulnerable to psychological distress? (b) What mediates between personality and psychological distress? (c) What buffers personality from psychological distress? The study examined personality traits (Harm‐Avoidance, HA; and Self‐Directedness, SD; two dimensions of the Temperament and Character Inventory), acculturation attitudes (integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization), and the mental health (General Health Questionnaire (GHQ)‐30) of 253 Chinese students in Japan (17–30 years of age) using self‐report questionnaires. The hypotheses are: For the Chinese international students in Japan, (a) the individuals with high HA or low SD are more vulnerable to psychological distress; (b) the acculturation strategy mediates between personality (HA/SD) and mental health (GHQ); (c) social support can moderate the effect of personality on acculturation adaptation. The results show that the Chinese international students in Japan had higher GHQ scores compared to normative standards, and marginalization (a less adaptive strategy) was their second most preferred acculturation strategy, next to integration. Individuals with high HA or low SD were more likely to have a marginalization attitude and suffer from more psychological distress. The mediation effect of marginalization and the moderation effect of social support in life (SSL) between HA/SD and GHQ were confirmed. Most of the hypotheses were supported by the results. Explanations of these findings and their implication for acculturation adaptation are discussed.     

Prejudice and attitudes of acculturation: perspectives of autochthonous and immigrants

This study is framed in a wider research on the acculturation process through a new acculturation model. The aim of this paper is to analyse the mutual prejudice between ethnic groups in contact and its relation to their preferred acculturation attitude. A questionnaire composed by various scales was given to four groups of people living in municipalities with high rate of African immigrants in Almería: Maghrebis, Sub-Saharans, Spaniards who evaluated the Maghreb out-group and Spaniards who responded on the Sub-Saharan out-group. The results obtained indicate a relation between prejudice and acculturation attitude, as the lowest scores in prejudice are hold in each group by people preferring integration , whilst the highest ones come from those who bow to exclusion/marginalisation.     

Cultural Involvement and Preference in Immigrant Acculturation

Measures of cultural involvement (CI) and cultural preference (CP) incorporate Berry’s integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization outcomes, locating them at the ends of two axes suggested by Szapocznik et al. (International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 4 (3–4), 353–365, 1980) in a bidimensional space formed by origin culture and destination culture scales. Each measure combines information from both origin culture and destination culture scales, retains the continuous properties of these scales, connects two of the four-category acculturation outcomes, and has theoretical significance and potential comparability across studies of different immigrant populations. Together they offer a quantitative measure of variations in the structural relation between an immigrant group and its new destination culture, and should reveal new insights into the acculturation process.     

A Psychometric Evaluation of the Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale with African Americans

The purpose of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale—KK (King & King, 1990) in a sample of 171 African American college students. Examination of the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients suggested that the SRES—KK is a reliable measure of gender role attitudes for African Americans. The construct validity of the instrument was assessed and supported by an examination of differences between men's and women's scores. The results of the study support the use of the SRES-KK with African American samples. Implications and future directions for research are discussed.