Resilience to discrimination stress across ethnic identity stages of development

Ethnic identity development may increase resilience to discrimination and prejudice, which are often common and stressful for ethnic minority adolescents. Based on ethnic identity development theory and resilience theory, we hypothesize that under high discrimination stress, ethnic affirmation and ethnic identity stage will have protective moderating effects on self‐esteem and depressive symptoms. A cross‐sectional self‐report study with 125 ethnic minority adolescents (13–18 years) found that ethnic affirmation (p < .05) had protective effects on depressive symptoms (p < .05) and protective‐enhancing effects on self‐esteem at high levels of discrimination stress. Achieved ethnic identity stage (p < .05) had protective‐stabilizing effects on self‐esteem at high discrimination stress. Our findings demonstrate that the protective elements of ethnic identity are feeling positive about one's ethnic group, having learned about one's history, and having resolved conflicts about one's ethnic group.     

Dissimilar effects of task‐relevant and interpersonal threat on independent–interdependent self‐construal in individuals with high self‐esteem

Previous research has indicated that individuals with high trait self‐esteem (HSEs) become more independent and less interdependent after experiencing a task‐relevant threat. However, these studies have not investigated other sources of ego threats, such as interpersonal threats. Therefore, the moderating effects of the degree of trait self‐esteem on task‐relevant and interpersonal ego threats were investigated in relation to independent, or interdependent self‐construal. It was predicted that in HSEs, the level of task‐relevant stress would be positively–negatively related to their independence–interdependence, whereas the level of interpersonal stress would be negatively–positively related to their independence–interdependence. In individuals with low trait self‐esteem (LSEs), the two types of stresses and independent–interdependent self‐construal may not have a significant relationship. We conducted a questionnaire survey with undergraduates. Correlational analysis of the results indicated that in HSEs, greater task‐relevant stress was related to heightened independence, whereas greater interpersonal stress had the opposite effect, indicating lower independence and heightened interdependence. However, these stresses were not related to the self‐construal of LSEs. These findings suggest that task‐relevant and interpersonal threat could have differential effects on independent and interdependent self‐construal for HSEs, but not in LSEs.     

Perceived group and personal discrimination: differential effects on personal self‐esteem

In two studies, we investigate the differential influence of perceived group and personal discrimination on self‐esteem in the context of the Rejection–Identification model (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999 ). We first polled a group of African immigrants and found that whereas personal discrimination was negatively related to personal self‐esteem, group discrimination was positively associated with it. As expected, identification served as a buffer between personal discrimination and self‐esteem. We replicated these effects in a second study using women as our respondents. These results suggest that perceiving group discrimination may be positively related to self‐esteem because people feel less alone in their plight, thereby alleviating the ill‐effects of exclusion. We discuss these results in relation to both the Rejection–Identification model and the discounting hypothesis (Crocker & Major, 1989 ). Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relationship between interpersonal perception and post‐traumatic stress disorder‐related functional impairment: a social relations model analysis

This study used Kenny's social relations model to examine the relationship between Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder‐related impairment and interpersonal perceptions. Participants were 124 students who had previously completed the Post‐traumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale as part of a larger study. After engaging in brief dyadic conversations with 3 other students, participants recorded perceptions of personality traits for themselves, their interaction partners and how they believed their partners saw them (metaperceptions). Results indicated that those with more severe post‐traumatic stress disorder‐related impairment saw themselves negatively and believed their interaction partners also viewed them negatively. However, these individuals were not seen differently by others, except that they were rated as less dependable. Our findings suggest that post‐traumatic stress disorder is associated with negative beliefs about the self that may influence self‐esteem and interpersonal relationships.     

Migrant Distress: The Role of Perceived Racial Discrimination and Coping Resources1

This paper examines the relationships among perceived racial discrimination, coping resources, and psychological distress experienced by 372 ethnic Chinese migrants in 3 Australian cities, within the social context of ongoing debates on Asian immigration. Based on the stress‐coping‐strain framework, it was expected that migrants’ recent increases in psychological distress would be associated with greater perceived racial discrimination, and lower levels of coping resources. Possible moderating effects of coping resources were examined. Hierarchical regression analyses provided broad support for the stress‐coping‐strain framework, and indicated direct effects of low personal and ethnic self‐esteem and having a small number of Anglo‐Australian friends on increased psychological distress. The findings are discussed with regard to implications for migrants’ wellbeing in the context of sociopolitical debates.     

Adult attachment styles,self‐esteem,and depressive symptoms: A comparison between postpartum and nonpostpartum women in Korea

Life stress related to child bearing has been suggested to increase the risk of maternal depression in vulnerable women who have an insecure relationship. This study examined the relationship between adult attachment security and maternal depression in postpartum women as compared to nonpostpartum women. A total of 254 Korean women were recruited from pediatric hospitals, of whom 119 were in the postpartum period. Participants completed the Relationship Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale. Both preoccupied and fearful attachment styles were associated with low self‐esteem and higher levels of depressive symptoms, but a dismissing attachment style was not related to self‐esteem and depression severity. Low self‐esteem was found to mediate the relation between insecure attachment and depression severity; however, this mediating effect differed depending on the insecure attachment style. For preoccupied attachment, the role of self‐esteem as a mediator was observed only in postpartum women, not in nonpostpartum women (moderated mediation). In contrast, for fearful attachment, the mediating effects emerged in both groups. The results highlight the fact that there is a complex mechanism behind the link between interpersonal relationships and risk of maternal depression.     

Perceived Discrimination Among Ethnic Minority Young People: The Role of Psychological Variables1

Because of difficulties in objectively determining discrimination, attention has turned to individual differences in perceptions of discrimination. This study aimed to build on such work by investigating the role of psychological variables in predicting perceived discrimination (PD) in a UK sample of ethnic minority young people (n= 154). A series of multiple regression analyses yielded 3 pathways leading to PD. There was a direct effect of gender on PD. Depression and low self‐esteem and need for approval predicted anxiety, which in turn was related to higher PD. Finally, private collective self‐esteem correlated with public collective self‐esteem, which in turn predicted lower PD. The results point to the importance of psychological variables, both personal and collective, in the perception of ethnic discrimination. Furthermore, the findings enhance our understanding of the complex associations between self‐esteem, affect, and PD.     

Psychological disidentification with the academic domain among ethnic minority adolescents in The Netherlands

Background: Among ethnic minority group adolescents, experiences with discrimination and prejudice in school settings are thought to lead to a defensive detachment of the self from the school domain. That is, these adolescents may disengage their self‐feelings from their academic performances causing the academic self to become a less important part of global self‐worth. However, there is limited empirical evidence for this assumption and the existing research is on African American students. Aims: To examine among ethnic minority adolescents in the Netherlands the hypothesis that under conditions of perceived discrimination minority group members tend to psychologically disengage their self‐feelings from educational performance. Samples. Study 1 was conducted among 161 Turkish students between 13 and 16 years of age. The sample in Study 2 consisted of 112 Turkish participants of 11 and 12 years of age. Methods: Two questionnaire studies were conducted and participants responded to questions on perceived academic performance, academic self‐esteem, global self‐worth and perceived discrimination in school. Results: In both studies, academic self‐esteem mediated the relationship between perceived educational performance and feelings of global self‐worth. More importantly, perceived discrimination in school moderated the relationship between academic self‐esteem and global self‐worth. Discrimination did not moderate the relationship between academic performance and academic self‐esteem. Conclusion: The results indicate that for ethnic minorities perceived discrimination in school can lead to psychological disidentification from the academic domain whereby global self‐worth is less based on performances and competencies in the academic domain.     

Constructing a minority group identity out of shared rejection: the case of international students

With a sample of international students, we investigated how perceptions of rejection by the host community are related to a sense of identification with other international students. Based on the rejection‐identification model (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999 ) we predicted that perceiving prejudice from the host university would be negatively related to psychological well‐being. We expected that group identification with international students would mediate a positive effect of perceived discrimination on self‐esteem, thus suppressing the negative effect of perceiving prejudice on self‐esteem. Consistent with predictions, results supported a model in which identification with international students increased in response to perceiving prejudice and suppressed the costs of perceiving oneself as excluded from the host community. Interestingly, identification with participants' home country was not predicted by perceptions of discrimination. Results are discussed in terms of how minority group members construct group identities in response to the intergroup context. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When does it hurt? Intergroup permeability moderates the link between discrimination and self‐esteem

Research shows that personal discrimination and group discrimination have distinct effects on personal self‐esteem. Specifically, whereas personal discrimination negatively impacts self‐esteem, group discrimination increases it. We suggest that this pattern is dependent on the socio‐structural context in which individuals experience discrimination. To test this hypothesis, we manipulate intergroup permeability and examine its impact on the link between personal/group discrimination and personal self‐esteem. Results show that a control condition replicates previous research, that is, a positive association between group discrimination and self‐esteem and a negative association for personal discrimination. The positive association of group discrimination disappeared in a permeable context and reversed when the context was presented as impermeable. Moreover, the deleterious effect of personal discrimination on self‐esteem vanished in impermeable contexts. Results are discussed in light of the literature on stigmatization. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attachment insecurities and interpersonal processes in Spanish couples: A dyadic approach

Several attachment‐related phenomena in Spanish couples using dyadic‐level analyses were examined. A sample of 295 heterosexual couples completed measures of attachment‐related anxiety and avoidance, self‐esteem, social self‐efficacy, and relationship satisfaction. Results, analyzed from a dyadic perspective using the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM), indicate that (a) there are actor but no partner effects of attachment insecurities on intrapersonal variables such as self‐esteem and social self‐efficacy, (b) there are actor and partner effects of avoidant attachment on relationship satisfaction, and (c) actor anxiety is associated with partner avoidance, and actor avoidance is associated with partner anxiety. Overall, the results reveal the importance of a dyadic perspective on couple members' attachment insecurities and their associations with intrapersonal and interpersonal processes and relationship adjustment. They also show that attachment variables and correlates studied mainly in English‐speaking countries are useful in understanding Spanish couple dynamics.     

Avoidant coping as a mediator between appearance‐related victimization and self‐esteem in young Australian adolescents

Peer victimization, especially appearance‐related bullying, is a highly stressful experience for a young person and is associated with significant negative outcomes. Perhaps, the most common consequence of peer victimization in adolescence is lowered self‐esteem. Evidence supports the role of low self‐esteem as a non‐specific risk factor and high self‐esteem as a protective factor in the development of mental disorders and social problems in adolescence. Moreover, the literature indicates a robust negative relationship between avoidant coping (i.e. distracting oneself, wishing the situation would go away) and psychological well‐being. In this paper, we test a mediational model of the associations between appearance‐related victimization, avoidance coping and self‐esteem in young Australian adolescents. Boys (N = 194) and girls (N = 185) with a mean age of 11 years completed measures assessing self‐esteem, appearance‐related victimization and styles of coping. The results showed that avoidant coping partially mediates the association between appearance‐related bullying problems and self‐esteem among young adolescents. This finding provides a specific target for psychosocial interventions in schools.     

The self‐esteem roller coaster: Adult attachment moderates the impact of daily feedback

People with different attachment orientations rely on different sources of self‐esteem. This 14‐day diary study examined the impact of different types of feedback on self‐esteem for adults of different attachment orientations. Consistent with theory, higher (vs. lower) anxious participants' daily self‐esteem fluctuated more with daily interpersonal feedback conveying rejection or coming from a romantic partner; they also self‐reported stronger reactions to idiosyncratic negative interpersonal feedback. Higher (vs. lower) avoidant participants showed weaker daily self‐esteem fluctuation with positive interpersonal feedback, and those with a fearful‐avoidant attachment pattern reported stronger reactions to positive agentic feedback. Self‐reported emotional reactions mediated links between attachment dimensions and self‐reported impact of feedback on self‐evaluations. Results highlight the importance of affect‐regulation strategies in influencing regulation of self‐esteem.     

Moderating effects of gender and age on the relationship between self‐esteem and life satisfaction in mainland Chinese

Previous studies indicated that not only individual self‐esteem (e.g., Diener & Diener, 1995; Neto, 1993) but also collective self‐esteem (e.g., Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, & Broadnax, 1994; Zhang & Leung, 1999) contributed to prediction of life satisfaction. When the effects of individual and collective self‐esteems on life satisfaction have been demonstrated, a further question in life satisfaction research is that whether the relationship between self‐esteem and life satisfaction is subject to the influence of boundary conditions. The present investigation focused on moderating effects of gender and age on the relationship between self‐esteem and life satisfaction in Chinese people. Participants were 1347 Mainland Chinese (aged from 14 to 88 years, 52.3% female) from three generations. They finished the General Life Satisfaction Scale (Leung & Leung, 1992), Life Domain Satisfaction Scale (revised from Michalos, 1985), Self‐Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) and Collective Self‐Esteem Scale (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992). Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the relationship between collective self‐esteem and general life satisfaction was stronger for the male participants than for the female participants. The effect of individual self‐esteem on life domain satisfaction was stronger in the male group than in the female group. The effect of individual self‐esteem on life domain satisfaction was stronger in the older people than in the younger people. However the effect of collective self‐esteem on life domain satisfaction was stronger in the younger people than in the older people. These results might reflect life task differences and social expectation differences between male and female, younger and older people. Additional research is needed with other types of samples, especially with samples from some individualist cultures to see whether the results could generalize to these cultures.     

Daily hassles,ethnic identity and psychological adjustment among Lebanese‐Canadians

Acculturation, as a process of cultural change, has been related to a number of consequences including psychological distress. While some research has demonstrated how post‐migration stressors influence the adjustment of immigrants, it has been proposed that daily hassles—irritants in daily interactions—such as minor chronic problems with the in‐group and the out‐group have an even greater impact on adjustment than major life events. Furthermore, research has shown that ethnic identification profiles and discrimination are two factors closely associated with adjustment among immigrant populations. This study was, therefore, meant to further investigate the relationships among ethnic identity, discrimination (personal and collective), and adjustment (self‐esteem and depression) through a model proposing daily hassles as a mediator among these factors. There were 100 first‐ and second‐generation Lebanese‐Canadians who participated in the study. They completed a questionnaire measuring ethnic identification to their in‐ and out‐group, discrimination, hassles experienced with their in‐ and out‐group, depression, and self‐esteem. Path analyses revealed the mediating role of daily hassles between identity and discrimination, on the one hand, and indices of depression and self‐esteem, on the other. The results also demonstrated that greater experienced personal discrimination was associated with higher levels of experienced out‐group hassles and more out‐group hassles related to lower levels of adjustment. Processes of identity revealed that a higher level of Lebanese identity was associated with less experienced in‐ and out‐group hassles, which positively related to better adjustment. However, Canadian identity directly and positively related to depression. These results are discussed, first, with respect to their implications for current theorizing regarding the process of acculturation. Daily hassles would indeed now stand as a key mediating factor in the explanation of adjustment among immigrants. Second, the findings are deemed to have practical implications in term of the direction of programmes aimed at alleviating acculturative stress.     

父母依恋对大学生人际适应的影响

应用自编大学生父母依恋问卷、亲子联结问卷、自尊量表、信任他人量表、人际能力问卷、领悟社会支持量表对251名大学生施测,对自编依恋问卷进行构想效度分析,并建立父母依恋影响大学生人际适应的路径模型。结果表明：1）大学生父母依恋问卷构想效度良好;2）父母依恋对人际能力、社会支持感知既有显著的直接效应,又以自尊、信任他人为中介产生间接效应;3）父母依恋对大学生人际适应有显著影响,依恋的内部工作模型理论具有跨文化适应性。     

Educational Self‐Efficacy of College Women: Implications for Theory,Research, and Practice

This study examined the relationships among personal and family valuing of education, self‐esteem, academic stress, and educational self‐efficacy for 530 female undergraduates. Personal and family valuing of education and self‐esteem were related to educational self‐efficacy; academic stress was related to self‐esteem and self‐efficacy. No differences existed between Euro‐American women and women of color, and for both groups, personal valuing of education, self‐esteem, and academic stress predicted educational self‐efficacy. Implications for research and practice are introduced.     

The association between stress,self‐esteem and depressive symptoms in adolescents

This cross‐sectional study investigated gender and age differences on domains of stress, self‐esteem and depressive symptoms, as well as the association between those domains using a sample of Norwegian adolescents (N = 1,239). The data was analysed using Pearson product moment correlation, t‐tests, and hierarchical multiple regression analyses. The results showed significant differences between genders. Girls scored higher on five of seven stressor domains comprising peer pressure, home life, school attendance, school/leisure conflict and school performance as well as depression, while boys scored significantly higher on self‐esteem. The hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that higher stress from school performance and school attendance related significantly to more depressive symptoms in both genders. Additionally, stress of home life significantly related to more depressive symptoms in girls, whereas stress of peer pressure was significant in association with depressive symptoms in boys. A strong, inverse association was found between self‐esteem and depression controlled for stress, especially in girls. Self‐esteem was not found to be a moderator of any stressor‐depression interactions. In conclusion, the results give support for the significant role of stress and self‐esteem on the experience of depressive symptoms in adolescents.     

Perceived discrimination and psychological adjustment among Russian‐speaking immigrant adolescents in Finland

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological adjustment among immigrant adolescents. The subjects were 170 Russian‐speaking adolescents, all born in the former Soviet Union, aged between 12 and 19 years, who immigrated to Finland between 1987 and 1996. According to the results, self‐esteem served as a major mediator between perceived discrimination and psychological adjustment. The adolescents' experiences of parental support influenced their perceptions of discrimination and enhanced their self‐esteem, especially among the boys. Adherence to traditional values increased experiences of parental support, and also directly enhanced psychological adjustment. In addition, experiences of paternal support were found to be the most important for the boys, whereas experiences of maternal support were important for the girls.     

The role of stress and area‐specific self‐esteem in adolescent smoking

Stress and self‐esteem have been shown to be important risk factors for adolescent cigarette smoking, and self‐esteem has previously been implicated as a stress‐moderating and a stress‐mediating variable. This study aimed to examine the associations between stress, area‐specific self‐esteem, and adolescent smoking, and to investigate whether specific areas of self‐esteem moderate or mediate the relationship between stress and smoking. Four hundred and ninety‐five adolescents (aged 14–19) responded to a questionnaire that examined these variables. Results showed that self‐esteem in the areas of school subjects and parent relations were related to smoking. Adolescents with low self‐esteem in these areas were more likely to smoke than their high self‐esteem counterparts. Highly stressed adolescents were more likely to smoke than those with low stress. However, the relationship between stress and smoking was completely mediated by self‐esteem in the area of school subjects. No moderation was revealed. Thus, high global self‐esteem may not be sufficient to reduce the risk of smoking. To maximise benefit, prevention and intervention efforts should target self‐esteem in the areas of school subjects and parent relations. Initiatives focusing on stress are only likely to decrease smoking to the extent that they influence self‐esteem in the area of school subjects.