Interethnic relations in Malaysia: Group identifications,indispensability and inclusive nationhood

This paper focuses on interethnic relations in Malaysia and examines survey data collected among Malay (n = 405), Chinese (n = 90), and Indian (n = 53) participants. In agreement with the Common In‐group Identity Model, inclusive nationhood was related to more positive out‐group attitudes. Relative in‐group indispensability was related to higher bias as predicted by the In‐group Projection Model. Furthermore, the dominant group of Malay had higher in‐group indispensability, more strongly endorsed an inclusive national representation, had stronger ethnic and national identification, and a stronger association between both identifications.     

Religiosity and consumer behavior of older adults: A study of subcultural influences in Malaysia

• Although differences in consumption patterns across countries are often inferred to be the result of different cultural values and religious orientations, they raise issues of validity because of the many country‐specific factors that may affect behavior. Furthermore, the effects of religiosity are confounded with those of variables that are associated with religiosity such as age. This paper examines the effects of religiosity on well‐being and changes in consumer preferences of 645 adults age 50 and older living in different regions of Malaysia who were surveyed via personal interviews. The results confirm the positive effects of religiosity on well‐being but show differences across the three main ethnic subcultures of Malaysia (Malays, Indians, and Chinese), and they provide little support for the hypotheses that the consistency of consumer brand and store preferences is influenced by religious values. It is suggested that the relationship between religiosity and consumer behaviors warrants additional research, focusing also on variables that relate to religiosity, method of analysis, and on mechanisms that link religiosity to consumer behaviors.

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive organization of disease concepts in Singapore

Abstract

This research investigates illness cognition and its relationship to the use of different types of medicine in three ethnic groups in Singapore. Four hundred and twenty-nine Chinese, Malay, and Indian Singaporeans rated 24 diseases as to their similarity. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) indicated three dimensions. Regression of these dimensions against 17 disease attributes suggested that these dimensions represented spiritual/psychological causation, disease severity, and viral causation. When the dimensions were related to the use of, preference for and perceived effectiveness of different types of medicine it was found that Indian medicine tended to be used, preferred and perceived to be most effective for diseases low in severity whereas Chinese medicine was viewed most favourably for diseases perceived to be low in spiritual/psychological causation as well as those not seen as virally caused. Malay medicine tended to used, preferred and perceived as most effective for conditions believed to be non-serious and not caused by a virus. Western medicine was most likely to be used, preferred, and seen as most effective for diseases viewed as serious as well as those believed to be virally caused.     

Social representations of history in Malaysia and Singapore: On the relationship between national and ethnic identity

Social representations of history were investigated using surveys among university populations of ethnic Malays, Chinese, and Indians in Singapore and Malaysia. Representations of history and historical leaders tended to be hegemonic or consensual, showing low levels of conflict across ethnicity and nationality, even regarding the separation of these two nations. Tendencies towards in-group favoritism and ontogeny were slight, but statistically significant on some measures. National and ethnic identity were positively correlated, with ethnic identity stronger than national identity in Malaysia, and strongest among Malays in Malaysia. National identity was strongest among Chinese in Malaysia, followed by Chinese in Singapore. Results of regression analyses on national identity suggest that ethnicity is more sensitive in Malaysia than in Singapore. Results are interpreted through the frameworks provided by social representations theory and social identity theory. It is argued that hegemonic representations of history are associated with positive correlations between national and ethnic identity.     

The influence of culture on teacher commitment

Culture is believed to be an important factor that influences various aspects of human life, such as behaviour, thinking, perceptions and attitudes. This article examines the similarities and differences in the influence of culture on teacher commitment in three types of Malaysian primary schools. Since commitment to teaching has rarely been investigated in the field of education, it is necessary to identify initially the dimensions of teacher commitment and their interrelationships that are likely to operate in schools. Each of the three types of schools in which this study is conducted is related to one of the three major cultural groups in Malaysia, namely, the Malay, Chinese and Indian cultures. An investigation is undertaken of the similarities and differences between these three groups with respect to cultural orientation with school leadership, in-school working conditions and teacher commitment as the criteria. The statistical analysis, conducted at the teacher level, is path analysis with latent variables using partial least squares regression to estimate the direct and indirect effects for the different ethnic groups of the main variables on teacher commitment. The differences reported between groups are of sufficient strength to argue that analysis with pooled data are largely inappropriate and consideration needs to be given to separate analysis for the various cultural subgroups both within a country and between countries where the effects of culture are largely different.     

Do they ‘look’ different(ly)? Dynamic face recognition in Malaysians: Chinese,Malays and Indians compared

Previous cross-cultural eye-tracking studies examining face recognition discovered differences in the eye movement strategies that observers employ when perceiving faces. However, it is unclear (1) the degree to which this effect is fundamentally related to culture and (2) to what extent facial physiognomy can account for the differences in looking strategies when scanning own- and other-race faces. In the current study, Malay, Chinese and Indian young adults who live in the same multiracial country performed a modified yes/no recognition task. Participants' recognition accuracy and eye movements were recorded while viewing muted face videos of own- and other-race individuals. Behavioural results revealed a clear own-race advantage in recognition memory, and eye-tracking results showed that the three ethnic race groups adopted dissimilar fixation patterns when perceiving faces. Chinese participants preferentially attended more to the eyes than Indian participants did, while Indian participants made more and longer fixations on the nose than Malay participants did. In addition, we detected statistically significant, though subtle, differences in fixation patterns between the faces of the three races. These findings suggest that the racial differences in face-scanning patterns may be attributed both to culture and to variations in facial physiognomy between races.     

Perceived social structural relations and group stereotypes: A test of the Stereotype Content Model in Malaysia

Using data from two studies, the current research tests the Stereotype Content Model (SCM) within a Malaysian context using Chinese and ethnic Malay participants. The aim of the research is to examine the theoretical underpinnings of the SCM in a new context by investigating the role of aspects of the perceived social structure that have not been considered previously. In line with the SCM it is found that the two dimensions of warmth and competence underlie in‐group and out‐group stereotypes in Malaysia. In addition, the in‐group was evaluated more positively than the out‐group on both dimensions. Furthermore, perceived economic social status rather than cultural or power status was related to out‐group competence (Study 1), and to out‐group warmth (Studies 1 and 2). Higher perceived economic competition was weakly and not consistently associated with less out‐group warmth, and political competition was not related to warmth.     

Parent Ratings of ADHD Symptoms: Differential Symptom Functioning Across Malaysian Malay and Chinese Children

This study examined differential symptom functioning (DSF) in ADHD symptoms across Malay and Chinese children in Malaysia. Malay (N=571) and Chinese (N=254) parents completed the Disruptive Behavior Rating Scale, which lists the DSM-IV ADHD symptoms. DSF was examined using the multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) structural equation modeling procedure. Although DSF was found for a single inattention (IA) symptom and three hyperactivity-impulsivity (HI) symptoms, all these differences had low effect sizes. Controlling for these DSF, Chinese children had higher IA and HI latent factor scores. However the effect sizes were small. Together, these findings suggest adequate support for invariance of the ADHD symptoms across these ethno-cultural groups. The implications of the findings for cross-cultural invariance of the ADHD symptoms are discussed.     

Christians and Muslims in search of common ground in Malaysia

According to its constitution, Malaysia is a federation and a secular state. But due to the special position given to the Malays, who usually adhere to Islam, Islam is declared to be the ‘official’ religion in the federation — although not necessarily in all of its member states, which differ in their ethnic and religious composition. The federal constitution generally guarantees religious freedom, but it provides that the propagation of other faiths among Malays and Muslims may be prohibited by law. In recent years, however, the Christians together with the other non‐Muslims feel a growing restriction of their freedom while the federal government pursues a policy of creating a common ‘Malaysian culture’ oriented towards Malay, and thus Islamic, values. This would change the open and pluralistic character of Malaysia — which is more than just peninsular Malaya — substantially and carry the danger of compartmentalizing society.     

Case studies of help seeking behaviour among Asian single parents in Singapore

Using structured interviews, we examined patterns of help seeking behaviour for Chinese, Malay and Indian single parents living in Singapore, Four sources of social support-Family, Neighbours/Friends, Professionals and Religion-were identified and related to four problem areas-Financial, Practical, Emotional and Information. As expected, support for our sample of Asian single parents was most likely to come from the family, and least likely to come from friends and neighbours. However, there were differences between the three ethnic groups across problem areas in the type of support they were most likely to receive. The generalizability of our results is limited by the small sample size, but a framework for understanding help seeking behaviour of Singaporean Asians is proposed.     

Couple Types, Ethnicity and Marital Satisfaction in Malaysia

The objective of this paper is to identify couple types and investigate the effects of couples types and ethnicity on marital satisfaction in Malaysia. A nation-wide survey involving one thousand married respondents was conducted. Using Fitzpatrick’s (1988) typology, four types of marriages were identified through cluster analysis, which included Traditional, Independent, Separate and Mixed couples. The main effect of couple types, ethnicity and effects of their interaction were found to have contributed significantly towards marital satisfaction. Malay respondents were most satisfied as Traditionals, while Chinese and Indian respondents were most satisfied as Independents. Results are discussed with reference to the current socio-cultural context of Malaysia.     

Factor structure of the Body Appreciation Scale among Malaysian women

The present study examined the factor structure of a Malay version of the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS), a recently developed scale for the assessment of positive body image that has been shown to have a unidimensional structure in Western settings. Results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses based on data from community sample of 591 women in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, failed to support a unidimensional structure for the Malay BAS. Results of a confirmatory factor analysis suggested two stable factors, which were labelled 'General Body Appreciation' and 'Body Image Investment'. Multi-group analysis showed that the two-factor structure was invariant for both Malaysian Malay and Chinese women, and that there were no significant ethnic differences on either factor. Results also showed that General Body Appreciation was significant negatively correlated with participants' body mass index. These results are discussed in relation to possible cross-cultural differences in positive body image.     

Teacher commitment: a comparative study of Malaysian ethnic groups in three types of primary schools

Commitment is a complex attitude that is potentially influenced by the nature of the groups and is contingent on the context in which an individual functions. Thus, different sociocultural environments will prescribe different imperatives for individuals’ or groups’ attitudes toward their work, particularly teachers’ commitment in a multi-ethnic educational setting. However, previous teacher commitment studies have predominantly been applied to single-sample studies in a multiracial Malaysian context. Therefore, this study attempts to compare the teacher commitment levels and the four dimensions of teacher commitment across Malay, Chinese and Indian teachers who are the dominant ethnicities in three different types of Malaysian primary schools. Questionnaires were administered to 1,154 primary school teachers in Penang, and the obtained data were analysed using AMOS 20.0 and SPSS 20.0. The findings revealed nonsignificant differences for commitment to school, commitment to students, commitment to teaching and commitment to profession for any pair of ethnic groups. Limitations and suggestions for future studies are discussed.     

Psychosocial Correlates of Body Image and Body Change Behaviors Among Malaysian Adolescent Boys and Girls

This study used a psychosocial framework to investigate the relationships between BMI, body dissatisfaction, body change behaviors and mental health/behavioral problems amongst a sample of 513 Malay, Indian and Chinese adolescent boys and girls in Malaysia who completed questionnaires assessing these variables. Expected gender differences were not found in relation to body dissatisfaction or engagement in strategies to increase weight, but boys reported greater engagement in strategies to increase muscles. Relationships between body dissatisfaction and engagement in body change behaviors and mental health/behavioral problems varied across race and gender. These findings suggest that the psychosocial framework is a useful way to conceptualise body dissatisfaction and related behaviors, and that caution should be exercised in generalising findings across gender and culture.     

Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and occupational aspirations of Indian and Anglo-Saxon British adolescents

A questionnaire monitoring occupational aspiration, ethnic identification, adolescent experience, and self-esteem was administered to a large sample of Indian and Anglo-Saxon British male and female adolescents attending school in the West Midlands. The relationship between these variables and differences between the four groups were consistent with predictions derived from the social identity approach to intergroup relations and group behaviour (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Indian males were found to possess a social mobility belief structure that mediates high occupational aspirations and keeness to marry out of their ethnic group. In contrast, Indian females were found to possess a social change belief structure associated with acceptance of the status quo and lower aspirations. Males and Anglo-Saxons reported higher self-esteem than females or Indians. The adolescent experience findings were less clear, but were consistent with the general interpretation of the data that the differences in intersex relations and gender-related experiences are contingent on ethnicity.     

A theory of reservation-dwelling American Indian alcohol use risk

The authors present a theory for understanding risk for problem drinking among reservation-dwelling American Indians. The theory offers an overall framework for understanding the risk process for this group. It considers the distinction between factors that influence mean levels of American Indian problem drinking and factors that influence individual differences in American Indian drinking. It proposes important contextual differences between reservation-dwelling American Indians and Caucasians that may help explain the higher mean levels of American Indian problem drinking. The theory further holds that, within the high mean level of problem drinking characteristic of many American Indian reservations, individual differences in problem drinking can be explained by very similar personality and learning factors as those that influence problem-drinking levels for other ethnic groups.     

Multiculturalism And Religio-ethnic Plurality

Malaysia is regarded one of the most plural countries in Southeast Asia. The plurality and the diversified nature of the society and the ability to live in relative peace and harmony make it possible to speak about Malaysia's experience of multiculturalism and co-existence. Upon independence in 1957 and the formation of Malaysia in 1963, the various religious and ethnic groups have practically demonstrated a remarkable sense of tolerance and reciprocity when they agreed to uphold the proposed Federal Constitution, which among other things granted citizenship to the immigrants (by the principle of jus soli), the recognition of Islam and the special Malay and Bumiputra rights. This paper seeks to depict the experience and the state of multiculturalism and the pattern of reciprocity and tolerance rooted and accustomed in the Malaysian society. It also traces some of the possible factors that are helping to shape the present generation's outlook towards multiculturalism.     

Involvement in Ethnic Organizations and Community Activism Among Asian Immigrants in the United States

This study examines whether ethnic organization members have a lower likelihood of community activism than multiethnic organization members as predicted by social capital approaches to collective civic engagement. Community activism is measured by whether the respondent has worked with others in his or her community to solve a problem in the last 12 months. Data come from the 2008 National Asian American Survey, and the sample is limited to five major Asian immigrant groups (the Chinese, Asian Indians, Filipinos, Koreans, and the Vietnamese) for group-specific analyses. Findings suggest that membership in ethnic organizations does not necessarily diminish the probability of community activism: For the Chinese and Asian Indians, members of ethnic organizations have a higher probability of community activism than their non-joiner counterparts. Yet, consistent with the prediction of social capital approaches, there is a significant difference in the probability of community activism between members of multiethnic organizations and non-joiners for all ethnic groups, except for the Vietnamese. Nevertheless, findings show that there is no significant difference in the likelihood of community activism between members of ethnic organizations and those of multiethnic organizations for each ethnic group. Thus, data from the 2008 NAAS fail to provide compelling evidence to support the social capital argument that involvement in ethnic organizations has a significantly weaker effect on collective civic engagement than involvement in multiethnic organizations. This paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings.     

Is ‘culture’ a justifiable variable for market segmentation? A cross‐cultural example

This paper investigates whether culture can be used to segment a market. Using Indians, resident in Britain (British Indians) as an example, previous research suggests that culture's manifestation within buyer behaviour provides sufficient evidence to justify its use as a market segment variable. Using brown goods (television sets, video equipment, music systems etc) a comparative quantitative study examined the impact of a range of cultural values upon the buying behaviour of British Indians and British Caucasians, to identify significant differences between the two. Although a significant difference was found, the amount of similarity between the two sample groups suggests culture should not be used as a segmentation variable. This research has implications for organisations seeking to develop ethnic minority orientated marketing strategies. Copyright © 2003 Henry Stewart Publications.