“直觉调整差误”偏向对贝叶斯推理成绩的影响

采用贝叶斯推理问题作为实验材料,探讨被试解决贝叶斯推理问题的启发式策略,从认知偏向的角度分析该问题的困难原因。结果发现:(1)贝叶斯推理问题解决过程中的可得性启发与后验概率估计过程中的直觉调整差误密切相关;(2)贝叶斯推理问题解决过程中文、理科被试都同样会产生直觉调整差误偏向;(3)贝叶斯推理问题解决过程中的后验概率估计值和对推理问题中包括虚报率信息的命题的可得性测量所得主观概率之间存在显著的负相关。     

推理能力、认知方式和启发量对顿悟问题解决不同阶段的影响*

从《科学发明创造实验问题材料库》中选取实验材料,采用“学习多个原型-测试多个问题”的两阶段实验范式,探究推理能力、认知方式和启发量对顿悟问题解决中原型激活与关键启发信息提取这两个阶段的影响。结果发现:(1)高推理能力被试比低推理能力被试的顿悟问题解决水平更高,且高推理能力被试在原型激活和关键启发信息提取上都显著优于低推理能力被试;(2)认知方式对原型激活和关键启发信息提取均没有影响;(3)启发量对原型激活没有影响,但对关键启发信息的提取有影响,并且高启发量的原型比低启发量的原型更能促进关键启发信息的提取。     

两步火柴棍算术问题解决中的顿悟认知成分分析*

选取68名大学生,随机分为口语报告组和非口语报告组,解决数值型、混合型、分解型、符号型和连等型等五种类型在内的8个两步火柴棍算术问题,以探讨不同难度的两步火柴棍算术问题解决过程中的顿悟认知成分。研究结果:(1)在两步火柴棍算术问题解决过程中,口语报告不存在口语遮蔽效应;(2)两步火柴棍算术问题的难度水平不完全取决于不正确表征;(3)五种题型中都存在失败、僵局和重构三种顿悟认知成分,且都存在自下而上和自上而下两种重构类型。本研究验证了难度水平不同的两步火柴棍算术问题解决过程是一个从分析到顿悟的连续体,即难度较大的连等型和符号型包含的顿悟认知成分较多,更接近顿悟性问题一端,分解型居中,难度较小的混合型、数值型包含的顿悟认知成分较少,更接近分析性问题一端;且自下而上的重构更多存在于顿悟性问题一端。     

大中学生四卡问题推理能力发展的实验研究

该文研究了大中学生四卡问题推理能力的发展,以及材料性质和指导语形式对这种发展的影响。结果发现：(1)具体材料上被试四卡问题的推理能力具有明显的发展趋势,高中时期是四卡问题推理能力发展的转折期。(2)存在主题促进效应。(3)指导语形式影响高中生在具体材料的四卡问题上的推理。     

信息表征形式对解决贝叶斯推理问题的影响

通过三个实验分别考察问题形式（一步问题,两步问题）、信息结构（分割结构,未分割结构）和辅助图形表征（条形图、饼图、结构图）对解决贝叶斯推理问题的影响。研究结果表明：(1)一步问题形式有时优于两步问题形式;(2)频率格式提问有时优于几率格式提问;(3)分割的信息结构明显优于未分割的信息结构;(4)与条形图和饼图形式的图形辅助表征相比,结构图形式的图形辅助表征显著提高了被试解决贝叶斯推理问题的成绩。     

青少年心理一致感水平及其与应付方式的关系

本研究以265名高中生为被试,探讨青少年心理一致感发展的特点以及与应付方式的关系。研究结果表明,(1)被试在心理一致感发展水平上存在显著的年级差异;(2)三个年级被试的应付方式存在显著的差异;(3)被试心理一致感水平与问题解决、求助两种应付方式存在显著的正相关;(4)被试心理一致感水平与自责、幻想、退避、合理化四种应付方式存在显著的负相关。高心理一致感个体在压力调节上倾向于采用成熟而积极的应付方式。本研究从压力应对的过程角度分析心理一致感与应付方式之间的关系。     

亲子沟通类型与青少年社会适应的关系

从北京市一所普通中学和济南市一所重点中学选取初一至高三六个年级720名学生为被试,探讨亲子沟通类型与青少年社会适应的关系。要求被试分别报告亲子沟通、学习成绩、自尊、抑郁、羞怯和问题行为的情况。结果发现:(1)在青少年与父母的沟通中,关系定向的沟通明显多于观念定向的沟通;随着年级的增长,关系定向和观念定向的沟通都有明显的增加;(2)在亲子沟通的类型中,保护型亲子沟通最多,其次为多元型亲子沟通,放任型和一致型亲子沟通最少;四种亲子沟通的年级分布存在明显的差异,初中生的放任型和保护型亲子沟通多于高中生,而高中生的多元型和一致型亲子沟通多于初中生;(3)同一种亲子沟通既可能促进青少年的积极社会适应,同时也可能增加青少年的消极社会适应。     

思维策略训练对高中生化学问题解决能力影响的实验研究

研究思维策略训练对于高中生解决化学计算问题的有效性。被试为1616名高中学生,训练由经过培训的17名高中化学教师承担,时间为10周,实验采用自编的《高中生化学计算问题解决思维策略训练教程》及《自我提示卡》,在真实的课堂教学情境和正常的教学秩序下进行,以探索化学学科问题解决思维策略训练的有效性。结果表明：思维策略训练能显著地提高高中生的化学计算问题解决能力,且普通中学高中生的训练效果明显优于重点中学。     

幼儿反事实推理的发展特点及影响因素

本研究以北京某幼儿园94名幼儿为被试,采用图片故事法和口语报告相结合的方式,考查了幼儿反事实堆理能力的发展特点及影响因素。结果表明：（1）4、5岁幼儿的表现明显好于3岁幼儿,但是4、5岁幼儿之间没有明显差异;（2）问题形式和因果链对反事实推理的影响上具有交互作用;（3）领域知识在各年龄阶段上对反事实推理的影响存在差异。     

问题类型和情绪状态对贝叶斯推理的影响

本研究以240名大学生为被试,探讨了问题类型和情绪状态对贝叶斯推理的影响。结果表明：(1)问题类型对贝叶斯推理有影响;(2)情绪状态对贝叶斯推理有影响;(3)问题类型与情绪状态对贝叶斯推理的影响存在交互作用。具体地,在经典乳癌问题中,被试在消极情绪状态下比在积极情绪状态下做出更高的概率估计,而在中彩问题中,被试在积极情绪状态下比在消极情绪状态下概率估计更高。     

Dynamic relationships between phonological memory and reading: A five year longitudinal study from age 4 to 9

We reconcile competing theories of the role of phonological memory in reading development, by uncovering their dynamic relationship during the first 5 years of school. Phonological memory, reading and phoneme awareness were assessed in 780 phonics‐educated children at age 4, 5, 6 and 9. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that phonological memory loaded onto two factors: verbal short‐term memory (verbal STM; phonological tasks that loaded primarily on serial order memory) and nonword repetition. Using longitudinal structural equation models, we found that verbal STM directly predicted early word‐level reading from age 4 to 6, reflecting the importance of serial‐order memory for letter‐by‐letter decoding. In contrast, reading had no reciprocal influence on the development of verbal STM. The relationship between nonword repetition and reading was bidirectional across the 5 years of study: nonword repetition and reading predicted each other both directly and indirectly (via phoneme awareness). Indirect effects from nonword repetition (and verbal STM) to reading support the view that phonological memory stimulates phonemically detailed representations through repeated encoding of complex verbal stimuli. Similarly, the indirect influence of reading on nonword repetition suggests that improved reading ability promotes the phoneme‐level specificity of phonological representations. Finally, the direct influence from reading to nonword repetition suggests that better readers use orthographic cues to help them remember and repeat new words accurately. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70LZfTR0BjE .     

Practice Makes (Nearly) Perfect: Solving ‘Students‐and‐Professors’‐Type Algebra Word Problems

Three experiments with university students (Ns = 40, 36, and 36) who were non‐math majors explicitly examined whether repetition in performing ‘students‐and‐professors’‐type algebra word problems, which have been shown in the past to be vexingly difficult even for more advanced students, would spontaneously lead to higher rates of correct answers. Word order and situation model specificity were also examined to determine their effects on the rate of improvement. The strongest predictor of students producing correct equations (i.e., not producing the typical ‘reversal error’) was practice: In all experiments, participants spontaneously improved in equation accuracy almost to ceiling levels as they progressed, despite receiving no feedback. Tentative support is provided for the pedagogical value of repetition in solving problems, along with varying the wording of the problems. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring the correlates of impaired non‐word repetition in Down syndrome

Non‐word repetition, in which participants hear and repeat unfamiliar verbal stimuli, is thought to provide a particularly sensitive measure of verbal short‐term memory capacity. However, performance on this task can also be constrained by hearing and speech production skills, and by an individuals' linguistic knowledge. This study examined real word and non‐word repetition in a sample of 18 children and adolescents with Down syndrome, and compared their performance to that of a control group of 18 typically developing children in order to determine the extent of any impairment in repetition performance in Down syndrome, and the correlates of performance in each group. Individuals with Down syndrome were impaired in repetition performance, although both groups showed similar benefits of linguistic knowledge on repetition accuracy. An analysis of the correlates of non‐word repetition revealed a double dissociation between the patterns of associations seen in the two groups. Among typically developing individuals, non‐word repetition was related to an independent measure of verbal short‐term memory but not to vocabulary knowledge. However, among individuals with Down syndrome, performance was related to vocabulary knowledge but not verbal short‐term memory span. This contrast is consistent with the view that impairment to verbal short‐term memory prevents this system from fully supporting non‐word repetition in Down syndrome.     

Exploring the characteristics of the visuospatial hebb repetition effect

Using the dot task (see Jones, Farrand, Stuart, & Morris, 1995)--regarded as a good visuospatial analogue of the verbal serial recall task--we examined whether the Hebb repetition effect and its characteristics can be extended to visuospatial material. Classically, the Hebb effect has been associated with serial verbal memory: Repetition of a to-be-remembered sequence of verbal items every third trial markedly improves serial recall of that sequence. In the present study, Hebb effects were observed with visuospatial information, and a direct comparison between verbal and spatialsequence learning revealed that the Hebb repetition effect for visuospatial information shares similar characteristics with its verbal analogue. Our results cast some doubt regarding the parsimony of the view that the classical verbal Hebb effect is driven by a store specialized for phonological information and impose some further constraints on modeling serial memory and implicit sequence learning.     

Hebb repetition effects for non-verbal visual sequences: determinants of sequence acquisition

We report four experiments premised upon the work of Horton et al. [(2008). Hebb repetition effects in visual memory: The roles of verbal rehearsal and distinctiveness. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(12), 1769–1777] and Page et al. [(2013). Repetition-spacing and item-overlap effects in the Hebb repetition task. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(4), 506–526], and explore conditions under which the visual Hebb repetition effect is observed. Experiment 1 showed that repetition learning is evident when the items comprising the non-repeated (filler) sequences and the repeated (Hebb) sequences are different (no-overlap). However, learning is abolished when the filler and Hebb sequences comprise the same items (full-overlap). Learning of the repeated sequence persisted when repetition spacing was increased to six trials (Experiment 2), consistent with that shown for verbal stimuli (Page et al., 2013). In Experiment 3, it was shown that learning for the repeated sequence is accentuated when the output motor response at test is also repeated for the Hebb sequence, but only under conditions of no-overlap. In Experiment 4, repetition spacing was re-examined with a repeated motor output response (a closer methodological analogue to Page et al., 2013). Under these conditions, the gradient of Hebb repetition learning for six trial repetition intervals was markedly similar to that for three trial intervals. These findings further support the universality of the Hebb repetition effect across memory and are discussed in terms of evidence for amodality within-sequence memory.     

Apparent duration of long meaningful events and meaningless intervals

Time estimates of 1 1/2-, 5¼-, and 14 1/2-min intervals were obtained from 12 American graduate students and 12 Indian graduate students by the methods of verbal estimation and cross-modality matching. Material presented during stimulus intervals varied in degree of meaningfulness. Each subject was tested on 4 successive days with basically the same material in order to determine the effects of repetition. The relationship between perceived and physical time was found to follow Stevens’ power law, and confidence limits of exponents obtained in this study include the exponents previously reported for short durations. Neither actual judgments nor exponents were affected by cultural background or by cognitive factors such as memory for material presented in the interval, familiarity, complexity, degree of meaningfulness, and repetition. It had previously been reported that time judgments were dependent on these cognitive factors. In light of the present research, it is necessary to review and replicate those studies which support a cognitive view of time perception.     

Belief-based and analytic processing in transitive inference: Further evidence for the importance of premise integration

Transitive inference problems were presented in a modified conclusion evaluation procedure. Conclusions were believable or unbelievable and valid, invalid or indeterminate. The 67 undergraduate students read the premises, evaluated the conclusions (accept, reject, cannot tell), then provided confidence ratings. Fluid intelligence was also assessed. Acceptance of valid conclusions, rejection of invalid conclusions and cannot tell responses to indeterminate conclusions of non-integrable problems indicated use of analytic processing. Believability effects indicated the use of heuristic processing. Fluid intelligence and premise integration ability (non-integrable problems) predicted greater use of analytic processing on valid and invalid problems. Premise integration ability was associated with reduced belief bias on invalid problems. Premise integration ability appears to influence the extent of heuristic versus analytic processing. Confidence was sensitive to the presence of belief–logic conflict. Conflict detection scores reflecting this sensitivity were not associated with analytic processing suggesting that conflict detection occurs automatically and reflects an intuitive logic.     

Solving distant analogies reduces belief-based responding in transitive inference

ABSTRACT

Previous research demonstrated that relational processing in transitive inference problems can be disrupted by belief-based content. Given the premises, The horse is larger than the goat, and The goat is larger than the elephant, accepting the valid conclusion, The horse is larger than the elephant suggests use of relational processing whereas accepting the invalid conclusion The elephant is larger than the horse indicates belief-based responding. This research examined whether solving analogies influenced participants’ reliance on belief-based or relational processing. Participants generated solutions to either distant analogies (e.g. nose:scent::antenna: ______) or near analogies (e.g. nose:scent::tongue:______) before evaluating the conclusions of transitive inference problems that were valid (V) or invalid (I) and believable (B), unbelievable (U) or neutral (N). Solving distant analogies eliminated belief-based responding (possibly reflecting improved inhibitory control) and facilitated relational responding on VU problems.     

The Structure of Creative Thinking: Visual and Verbal Areas

The main purpose of this study was to study the structure of creative thinking of students in visual and verbal areas. The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking Figural and Verbal forms were used. The participants were Turkish elementary school 7th grade students (M = 13 years, range = 12–14 years). The findings indicated that the relationship between visual and verbal areas of creative thinking of students were statistically significant and meaningful. Additionally, gender differences were statistically significant and meaningful. The results indicate that the structure of creative thinking of students is holistic in early puberty age, at least in terms of visual and verbal areas of creative thinking. However, the holistic structure of students’ creative thinking has flexible character regarding to low (r = .25) level of relationship between visual and verbal areas. This result suggests that the visual and verbal materials can be used with presentation and narrative techniques in balanced education activities for the development of students’ creative thinking effectively.