Identification with groups: the role of personality and context

Is identification a product of personality or of the context? We examine this question by adopting a multidimensional conceptualization of identification (the CIDS model) that integrates research perspectives on personality and contextual effects. We investigate (Study 1) the relationships of traits to identification with the nation (students, N = 77), the army (soldiers, N = 220), and a business school (students, N = 123). Then we show that the modes of identification vary in their stability across social contexts and in their susceptibility to contextual change. Idealizing groups' symbols (“deference” identification) is especially stable across different foci of identification (Study 2): the military and former high school (soldiers, N = 188), the business school and the nation (students, = 62), and the military and one's ethnic group (soldiers, N = 95). Perceiving the group as a central part of the self (“importance” identification) is the most susceptible to contextual effects of priming values (Study 3; students, N = 80, 60) and the group's status (Study 4; students, N = 68).     

Standing on shaky ground and living in the now: How resource amount and stability influence time perspectives

Time perspective predicts multiple health, antisocial, and prosocial outcomes, but the factors that explain it are rarely examined. Two studies examined the unique influences of resource amount and stability on time perspective. In both studies, participants (n = 300 college students for Study 1, 167 working adults for Study 2) reported the amount and stability of their income, and their time perspectives. The instability of financial and social resources was associated with present‐fatalistic perspective. The stability of personal resources was associated with future‐planful perspective. Implications for developmental and cognitive theories of risky behavior are discussed.     

Identification With Video Game Characters as Automatic Shift of Self-Perceptions

Two experiments tested the prediction that video game players identify with the character or role they are assigned, which leads to automatic shifts in implicit self-perceptions. Video game identification, thus, is considered as a kind of altered self-experience. In Study 1 (N = 61), participants either played a first-person shooter game or a racing game. Subsequently, they performed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) designed to detect cognitive associations between character-related concepts and players' self. Findings indicate a stronger automatic association of military-related concepts to shooter players' self and a stronger association of racing-related concepts to racing game players' self. Study 2 (N = 48) replicated the IAT result from Study 1 and demonstrated the stability of the identification pattern. Implications for identification as an element of the video game experience and future research directions are discussed.     

Merging on mayday: subgroup and superordinate identification as joint moderators of threat effects in the context of European Union's expansion

Threat has been proposed as an important cause of prejudice with social identification moderating its effects. In the context of the expansion of the European Union, two studies (N = 216 students and N = 107 non‐students) examined how people with different levels of subgroup and superordinate identification respond to threats from an outgroup nested within the same superordinate category as the ingroup. Across experiments, a consistent finding was that participants who strongly identified with the subgroup (Germany) and the superordinate group (Europe) at the same time were most susceptible to a subtle manipulation of threat. Among these participants, threat increased prejudice (Studies 1 and 2) and ingroup projection (Study 2). Findings are discussed with regard to theoretical models of subgroup relations, especially the ingroup projection model, as well as the European integration process. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social Dominance Orientation and John Henryism at the Intersection of Race and Class

Three studies were conducted to explore the relationship between social dominance orientation (SDO) and John Henryism (JH). Each study was framed using an intersectionality perspective which predicted that specific combinations of social identities would impact endorsement of SDO and JH in unique ways. We hypothesized that upper‐class non‐Whites would be higher in SDO and lower in JH than any other class/race identity combination. As predicted, a Class × Race interaction emerged for both SDO and JH in Study 1 (N = 387), with upper‐class non‐Whites displaying the highest levels of SDO and the lowest levels of JH. Study 2 (N = 340) replicated these findings and also explored the impact of context‐level class on SDO and JH. Using a qualitative method, in Study 3 (N = 23) we found that upper‐class non‐Whites described their social class positions in ways highly consistent with SDO, whereas middle/working‐class non‐Whites described their experiences in ways consistent with JH.     

Intergroup time bias and racialized social relations

Within the framework of intergroup relations, the authors analyzed the time people spent evaluating ingroup and outgroup members. They hypothesized that White participants take longer to evaluate White targets than Black targets. In four experiments, White participants were slower to form impressions of White than of Black people; that is, they showed an intergroup time bias (ITB). In Study 1 (N = 60), the ITB correlated with implicit prejudice and homogeneity. Study 2 (N = 60) showed that the ITB was independent of the type of trait in question (nonstereotypical vs. stereotypical). Study 3 (N = 100) demonstrated that ITB correlates with racism measured 3 months beforehand, is independent of motivation to control prejudice, and is not an epiphenomenon of homogeneity. In Study 4 (N = 40) participants not only showed the ITB in a racialized social context but also displayed it following a minimal group manipulation.     

Alcohol self‐presentation: the role of impression motivation and impression construction

Two studies examined impression motivation (IM) and impression construction (IC) processes in college freshman alcohol use. In both studies, students completed individual difference measures related to IM and alcohol IC. In Study 1 (n = 232), participants were assigned to IM (low vs. high) and IC (alcohol vs. control) conditions and then created a personal profile. In Study 2 (n = 65), participants reported levels of IM and alcohol IC, and number of drinks during each evening's social interactions for 3 weeks. Situational alcohol IC was positively related to whether participants presented themselves as an alcohol user in their profile (Study 1) and in the amount they drank (Study 2). In Study 2, the association between IC and drinking was moderated by IM.     

Can We Identify with a Nation Low in Morality? The Heavy Weight of (Im)Morality in International Comparison

Research has shown that the perceived morality of the ingroup is a primary source of group pride and ingroup identification. The present research examined whether this is true even when a group has a poor reputation for morality in terms of dishonesty and corruption, such as in the case of Italians. To address this issue, two studies analyzed the role of the three fundamental dimensions of social judgment—morality, competence, and sociability—in predicting Italians’ identification with their nation when the salience of social comparison and the status of the comparison outgroup were varied. Findings showed that perceived morality predicted ingroup identification when participants did not engage in social comparison. Under salient social comparison, individuals based group identification on other dimensions: Perceived sociability was the main predictor of identification when respondents compared with a higher status outgroup (Germans; Study 1; N = 109), whereas perceived competence was the main predictor of identification when participants compared with a lower status outgroup (Romanians; Study 2; N = 121). Overall, findings showed compensation processes in social identification: When social comparison is salient, members of a low morality group base identification on the dimension which allows positive differentiation from the outgroup.     

The structure of self–other overlap and its relationship to perspective taking

Two studies tested whether “self–other overlap” is a multidimensional construct, with only some dimensions affected by perspective taking. In Study 1, participants (n = 132) completed several previously used measures of self–other overlap for their best friend and acquaintance. Factor analyses revealed 2 distinct dimensions of self–other overlap—perceived closeness and overlapping representations. Perceived closeness but not overlapping representations was generally associated with relationship quality. Study 2 (n = 118) manipulated perspective taking of a stranger. Results replicated a factor structure similar to Study 1, and found that perspective taking had different effects on the 2 dimensions of overlap. These results are discussed with regards to the debate over self–other overlap as a mediator of perspective taking's pro‐social effects.     

Adult Attachment Style and Cognitive Reactions to Positive Affect: A Test of Mental Categorization and Creative Problem Solving

Three studies examined the moderating effect of attachment style on cognitive reactions to positive affect inductions. In Study 1 (N = 110), participants completed attachment style scales, were asked to retrieve a happy or a neutral memory, and, then, performed a categorization task. Study 2 (N = 120) used the same affect induction, while examining creative problem solving in the Remote Associates Test. Study 3 (N = 120) replicated Study 2, while using another affect induction (watching a comedy film) and controlling for trait anxiety scores. Overall, securely attached persons reacted to positive affect with broader categorization and better performance in creative problem-solving tasks. Anxious–ambivalent persons showed an opposite pattern of cognitive reactions to positive affect, and avoidant persons showed no difference in their cognitive reactions to positive and neutral affect inductions. The discussion emphasizes the role that attachment-related strategies of affect regulation may play in episodes of positive affect.     

Perceptions,emotions, and behavioral decisions in conflicts that escalate to violence

The present study tests the notion that cost-benefit considerations guide individuals’ emotional and behavioral responses when confronting an aggressive male stranger. Data was derived from hypothetical situations, with varying levels of opponent dangerousness and aggression severity, presented to 212 male and female students. Results indicate that the less dangerous the opponent and/or the more severe his aggression, the more intense are the respondents’ expected emotions of anger and fear and the higher the intended severity of respondents’ counter-aggression. While the expected emotional experience for female participants is more intense than for males, the intended behavioral counter-aggression is more severe for male participants than for females. Finally, an association between emotional experience and behavioral response was found only among males and it was mediated by opponent levels of dangerousness and aggression severity. Findings support the cost-benefit notion and emphasize the importance of studying aggression from an event perspective. Zeev Winstok, Ph.D., is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Social Welfare & Health Studies, University of Haifa, and a Research Fellow at the Center for the Study of Society, University of Haifa, Israel.     

Positive affect, meaning in life, and future time perspective: an application of socioemotional selectivity theory

Four studies tested the prediction that positive affect (PA) would relate more strongly to meaning in life (MIL) as a function of perceived time limitations. In Study 1 (N = 360), adults completed measures of PA and MIL. As predicted, PA related more strongly to MIL for older, compared to younger, participants. In Studies 2 and 3, adults (N = 514) indicated their current position in their life span, and rated their MIL. PA, whether naturally occurring (Study 2) or induced (Study 3), was a stronger predictor of MIL for individuals who perceived themselves as having a limited amount of time left to live. Finally, in Study 4 (N = 98) students completed a measure of PA, MIL, and future time perspective (FTP). Results showed that PA was more strongly linked to MIL for those who believed they had fewer opportunities left to pursue their goals. Overall, these findings suggest that the experience of PA becomes increasingly associated with the experience of MIL as the perception of future time becomes limited. The contribution of age related processes to judgments of well-being are discussed.     

The Clinical Application of MMPI Special Scales/MMPI Supplemental Scale Manual (Book)

Two studies involving a total of 200 participants examined the effect of individual versus group test administration on Rorschach Oral Dependency (ROD) scores. In Study 1, 60 college students completed the ROD scale via a group administration, and 60 students completed individual Rorschach protocols from which ROD scores were derived. Analyses revealed no differences in ROD means and standard deviations and no differences in the form of the ROD score distributions (i.e., skewness and kurtosis) as a function of mode of test administration. Virtually identical results were obtained in Study 2 (N = 80), where a within-participants design was used in lieu of the between-participants design of Study 1. Implications of these findings for the construct validity of the ROD scale are discussed.     

Organizational identification and leader evaluation in a global workplace: Interaction of self-uncertainty,self-construal,and organizational culture

Past studies in social psychology, and in organizational psychology, have incorporated social identity theory but have not specifically examined the effects of self-construal and self-uncertainty on an individual's organizational identification. Through two social psychology experiments, the present research advances the literature by studying the effects of three predictor variables (self-construal, self-uncertainty, and organizational culture) on the criterion variables of identification with the organization, commitment to the organization, extra-role behaviors (Study 1), and leader evaluations (Study 2). Study 1 (N = 256) found that participants evaluated a self-inclusive organization more favorably when it possessed a relational (as opposed to nonrelational) organizational culture. This effect was, as predicted, moderated by self-uncertainty such that it was significantly stronger under high rather than low self-uncertainty. Study 2 (N = 336) examined the same criterion variables as the previous study but with the addition of leader evaluation. It was found that interdependent participants identified with and were more committed to their organization. Participants with an interdependent self-construal and high levels of self-uncertainty rated their leader more favorably when in a relational (as opposed to nonrelational) organization. Additionally, a significant three-way interaction between the predictors was explored. Future research directions and wider implications for strengthening employee identification and leader evaluations in organizations are discussed.     

Physical aggression as a function of perceived fighting ability among male and female prisoners

Study 1 used two scenarios depicting provocations to investigate whether prisoners' willingness to engage in physical aggression would vary according to the perceived fighting ability (Resource Holding Power [RHP]) of the opponent. RHP was operationalized in terms of three levels of the size, number of allies, and reputation. The sample (both sexes; N=1,253) was taken from a range of British prisons. Unexpectedly, the prisoners said that they would be less likely to attack a weaker opponent than an equally matched one. The predicted decline from equally matched to more formidable opponents was found only under some conditions. A further sample of male prisoners (N=260), completed a similar provocation scenario, with response options covering fear, several forms of aggression, the importance of the provocation for reputation, and that the provocation was unimportant. Fear increased with RHP as predicted. Lower physical aggression to a low RHP opponent was again found, and it was associated with a lesser impact on reputation of an insult from this source. There was also a lower likelihood of responding with physical aggression to a high RHP opponent, as originally predicted. Implications of the findings for motivational theories of aggression are discussed, and also the applicability to humans of concepts from game theory models of the evolution of fighting strategies.     

Opening closed minds: the combined effects of intergroup contact and need for closure on prejudice

Five studies tested whether need for closure (NFC) moderates the relation between intergroup contact and prejudice toward immigrants. The results consistently showed that intergroup contact was more strongly associated with reduced levels of prejudice among people high in NFC compared to people low in NFC. Studies 1 (N = 138 students) and 2 (N = 294 adults) demonstrated this moderator effect on subtle, modern, and blatant racism. Study 2 also replicated the moderator effect for extended contact. An experimental field study (Study 3; N = 60 students) provided evidence of the causal direction of the moderator effect. Finally, Studies 4 (N = 125 students) and 5 (N = 135 adults) identified intergroup anxiety as the mediator through which the moderator effect influences modern and blatant racism as well as hostile tendencies toward immigrants. The role of motivated cognition in the relation between intergroup contact and prejudice is discussed.     

Conservatives Anticipate and Experience Stronger Emotional Reactions to Negative Outcomes

The present work examined whether conservatives and liberals differ in their anticipation of their own emotional reactions to negative events. In two studies, participants imagined experiencing positive or negative outcomes in domains that do not directly concern politics. In Study 1, 190 American participants recruited online (64 male, M_age = 32 years) anticipated their emotional responses to romantic relationship outcomes. In Study 2, 97 Canadian undergraduate students (26 male, M_age = 21 years) reported on their anticipated and experienced emotional responses to academic outcomes. In both studies, more conservative participants predicted they would feel stronger negative emotions following negative outcomes than did more liberal participants. Furthermore, a longitudinal follow‐up of Study 2 participants revealed that more conservative participants actually felt worse than more liberal participants after receiving a lower‐than‐desired exam grade. These effects remained even when controlling for the Big Five traits, prevention focus, and attachment style (Study 1), and optimism (Study 2). We discuss how the relationship between political orientation and anticipated affect likely contributes to differences between conservatives and liberals in styles of decision and policy choices.     

Identification During Imposed Change: The Roles of Personal Values,Type of Change,and Anxiety

Using a person‐situation perspective, we explain what happens to individuals' identification with a collective in the context of a change. We propose that given the anxiety that often emerges during change, individuals' personal values (conservation and openness to change) interact with type of change (imposed vs. voluntary) in predicting identification following change. In a pilot, longitudinal field study (N = 61, 67% female) of an imposed university campus relocation, we measured employees' values and identification with the university before and several months after the relocation. In two lab experiments (Study 1: N = 104, 91.3% female; Study 2: N = 113, 75.2% female), we manipulated a change to be either imposed or voluntary and compared the relationships between values and identification across types of change. In Study 2, we also measured anxiety from the change. When change was imposed (all three studies), but not when voluntary (Studies 1 and 2), individuals' conservation was positively, and openness negatively, related to individuals' post‐change identification. The effects emerged only for individuals who experienced change‐related anxiety (Study 2). Our findings demonstrate that individuals' identification with a changing collective depends on the amount of anxiety change elicits and on the particular combination of their values and type of change.     

Students Aggress Against Professors in Reaction to Receiving Poor Grades: An Effect Moderated by Student Narcissism and Self‐Esteem

Laboratory evidence about whether students’ evaluations of teaching (SETs) are valid is lacking. Results from three (3) independent studies strongly confirm that "professors" who were generous with their grades were rewarded for their favor with higher SETs, while professors who were frugal were punished with lower SETs (Study 1, d = 1.51; Study 2, d = 1.59; Study 3, partial η² = .26). This result was found even when the feedback was manipulated to be more or less insulting (Study 3). Consistent with laboratory findings on direct aggression, results also indicated that, when participants were given a poorer feedback, higher self‐esteem (Study 1 and Study 2) and higher narcissism (Study 1) were associated with them giving lower (more aggressive) evaluations of the "professor." Moreover, consistent with findings on self‐serving biases, participants higher in self‐esteem who were in the positive grade/feedback condition exhibited a self‐enhancing bias by giving their "professor" higher evaluations (Study 1 and Study 2). The aforementioned relationships were not moderated by the professor's sex or rank (teaching assistant vs.professor). Results provide evidence that (1) students do aggress against professors through poor teaching evaluations, (2) threatened egotism among individuals with high self‐esteem is associated with more aggression, especially when coupled with high narcissism, and (3) self‐enhancing biases are robust among those with high self‐esteem. Aggr. Behav. 39:71‐84, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.