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1.
Ockham’s razor is the principle that, all other things being equal, scientists ought to prefer simpler theories. In recent
years, philosophers have argued that simpler theories make better predictions, possess theoretical virtues like explanatory
power, and have other pragmatic virtues like computational tractability. However, such arguments fail to explain how and why
a preference for simplicity can help one find true theories in scientific inquiry, unless one already assumes that the truth is simple. One new solution to that problem is
the Ockham efficiency theorem (Kelly 2002, Minds Mach 14:485–505, 2004, Philos Sci 74:561–573, 2007a, b, Theor Comp Sci 383:270–289, c, d; Kelly and Glymour 2004), which states that scientists who heed Ockham’s razor retract their opinions less often and sooner than do their non-Ockham
competitors. The theorem neglects, however, to consider competitors following random (“mixed”) strategies and in many applications
random strategies are known to achieve better worst-case loss than deterministic strategies. In this paper, we describe two
ways to extend the result to a very general class of random, empirical strategies. The first extension concerns expected retractions,
retraction times, and errors and the second extension concerns retractions in chance, times of retractions in chance, and
chances of errors. 相似文献
2.
Greg Novack 《Journal of Philosophical Logic》2010,39(6):655-678
The principle of indifference (hereafter ‘Poi’) says that if one has no more reason to believe A than B (and vice versa), then one ought not to believe A more than B (nor vice versa). Many think it’s demonstrably false despite its intuitive plausibility, because of a particular style of thought experiment
that generates counterexamples. Roger White (2008) defends Poi by arguing that its antecedent is false in these thought experiments. Like White I believe Poi, but I find his
defense unsatisfactory for two reasons: it appeals to false premises, and it saves Poi only at the expense of something that
Poi’s believers likely find just as important. So in this essay I defend Poi by arguing that its antecedent does hold in the
relevant thought experiments, and that the further propositions needed to reject Poi are false. I play only defense in this
essay; I don’t argue that Poi is true (even though I think it is), but rather that one popular refutation is faulty. In showing
this, I also note something that has to my knowledge gone unnoticed: given some innocuous-looking assumptions the denial of
Poi is equivalent to a version of epistemic permissivism, and Poi itself is equivalent to a version of epistemic uniqueness. 相似文献
3.
Although word co-occurrences within a document have been demonstrated to be semantically useful, word interactions over a
local range have been largely neglected by psychologists due to practical challenges. Shannon’s (Bell Systems Technical Journal, 27, 379–423, 623–665, 1948) conceptualization of information theory suggests that these interactions should be useful for understanding communication.
Computational advances make an examination of local word–word interactions possible for a large text corpus. We used Brants
and Franz’s (2006) dataset to generate conditional probabilities for 62,474 word pairs and entropy calculations for 9,917 words in Nelson,
McEvoy, and Schreiber’s (Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 402–407, 2004) free association norms. Semantic associativity correlated moderately with the probabilities and was stronger when the two
words were not adjacent. The number of semantic associates for a word and the entropy of a word were also correlated. Finally,
language entropy decreases from 11 bits for single words to 6 bits per word for four-word sequences. The probabilities and
entropies discussed here are included in the supplemental materials for the article. 相似文献
4.
Eastern forms of meditation have been widely studied for their effectiveness in stress management (Walsh and Shapiro American Psychologist 61:227–239, 2006). Yet few empirical studies have been conducted on the health effects of Judeo-Christian contemplative prayer practices.
This study contributes to research in this underdeveloped area by exploring the outcome of a contemporary form of Christian
meditation called Centering Prayer (Keating 1986) on everyday stress and on Christians’ approach to communicating with God. The impact of 10 weekly 2-hour group sessions
and individual practice of Centering Prayer 2-times daily by 15 Roman Catholic congregants was hypothesized to decrease participants’
stress and increase their collaborative relationship with God (Pargament et al. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 27:90–104, 1988). Pre-post quantitative and qualitative data on Centering Prayer versus comparison groups supported the hypothesis. 相似文献
5.
Johannes Persson 《Erkenntnis》2010,72(1):135-149
Accounts of ontic explanation have often been devised so as to provide an understanding of mechanism and of causation. Ontic
accounts differ quite radically in their ontologies, and one of the latest additions to this tradition proposed by Peter Machamer,
Lindley Darden and Carl Craver reintroduces the concept of activity. In this paper I ask whether this influential and activity-based
account of mechanisms is viable as an ontic account. I focus on polygenic scenarios—scenarios in which the causal truths depend
on more than one cause. The importance of polygenic causation was noticed early on by Mill (1893). It has since been shown to be a problem for both causal-law approaches to causation (Cartwright 1983) and accounts of causation cast in terms of capacities (Dupré 1993; Glennan 1997, pp. 605–626). However, whereas mechanistic accounts seem to be attractive precisely because they promise to handle complicated
causal scenarios, polygenic causation needs to be examined more thoroughly in the emerging literature on activity-based mechanisms.
The activity-based account proposed in Machamer et al. (2000, pp. 1–25) is problematic as an ontic account, I will argue. It seems necessary to ask, of any ontic account, how well it
performs in causal situations where—at the explanandum level of mechanism—no activity occurs. In addition, it should be asked how well the activity-based account performs in situations where there are
too few activities around to match the polygenic causal origin of the explanandum. The first situation presents an explanandum-problem
and the second situation presents an explanans-problem—I will argue—both of which threaten activity-based frameworks. 相似文献
6.
Klahr AM Rueter MA McGue M Iacono WG Burt SA 《Journal of abnormal child psychology》2011,39(5):683-694
Prior studies have indicated that the relationship between parent-child conflict and adolescent antisocial behavior is at
least partially shared environmental in origin. However, all available research on this topic (to our knowledge) relies exclusively
on parent and/or adolescent informant-reports, both of which are subject to various forms of rater bias. As the presence of
significant shared environmental effects has often been attributed to rater bias in the past (Baker et al. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 16:219–235, 2007; Bartels et al. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42:1351–1359, 2003, Twin Research 7:162–175, 2004; Hewitt et al. Behavior Genetics 22:293–317, 1992), it would be important to confirm that findings of shared environmental mediation persist when even examining (presumably
more objective) observer-ratings of these constructs. The current study thus examined the origins of the relationship between
parent-child conflict and adolescent acting-out behavior, as measured using both observer-ratings and various informant-reports.
Participants included 1,199 adopted and non-adopted adolescents in 610 families from the Sibling Interaction and Behavior
Study (SIBS). Results indicated that parent-child conflict consistently predicts acting-out behavior in adopted adolescents,
and moreover, that this association is equivalent to that in biologically-related adolescents. Most importantly, these findings
did not vary across parent- and adolescent-reported or observer-ratings of parent-child conflict and acting-out behavior.
Such findings argue strongly against rater bias as a primary explanation of shared environmental mediation of the association
between parent-child conflict and adolescent antisocial behavior. 相似文献
7.
Tyrus Fisher 《Philosophia》2011,39(1):51-59
Some of Quine’s critics charge that he arrives at a behavioristic account of linguistic meaning by starting from inappropriately
behavioristic assumptions (Kripke 1982, 14; Searle 1987, 123). Quine has even written that this account of linguistic meaning is a consequence of his behaviorism (Quine 1992, 37). I take it that the above charges amount to the assertion that Quine assumes the denial of one or more of the following
claims: (1) Language-users associate mental ideas with their linguistic expressions. (2) A language-user can have a private
theory of linguistic meaning which guides his or her use of language. (3) Language learning relies on innate mechanisms. Call
an antecedent denial of one or more of these claims illicit behaviorism. In this paper I show that Quine is prepared to grant, if only for the sake of argument, all three of the above claims. I
argue that his claim that “there is nothing in linguistic meaning beyond what is to be gleaned from overt behavior in observable
circumstances” is unscathed by these allowances (Quine 1992, 38). And I show that the behaviorism which Quine does assume should be viewed as a largely uncontroversial aspect of his
evidential empiricism. I conclude that if one sets out to dismiss Quine’s arguments for internal-meaning skepticism, this dismissal should not
be motivated by the charge that his conclusions rely on the illicitly behavioristic assumptions that some have suggested that
they do. 相似文献
8.
Franz Huber 《Journal of Philosophical Logic》2007,36(5):511-538
This paper starts by indicating the analysis of Hempel’s conditions of adequacy for any relation of confirmation (Hempel,
1945) as presented in Huber (submitted). There I argue contra Carnap (1962, Section 87) that Hempel felt the need for two concepts of confirmation: one aiming at plausible theories and another aiming
at informative theories. However, he also realized that these two concepts are conflicting, and he gave up the concept of
confirmation aiming at informative theories. The main part of the paper consists in working out the claim that one can have
Hempel’s cake and eat it too — in the sense that there is a logic of theory assessment that takes into account both of the
two conflicting aspects of plausibility and informativeness. According to the semantics of this logic, α is an acceptable theory for evidence β if and only if α is both sufficiently plausible given β and sufficiently informative about β. This is spelt out in terms of ranking functions (Spohn, 1988) and shown to represent the syntactically specified notion of an assessment relation. The paper then compares these acceptability
relations to explanatory and confirmatory consequence relations (Flach, 2000) as well as to nonmonotonic consequence relations (Kraus et al., 1990). It concludes by relating the plausibility-informativeness approach to Carnap’s positive relevance account, thereby shedding
new light on Carnap’s analysis as well as solving another problem of confirmation theory.
A precursor of this paper has appeared as “The Logic of Confirmation and Theory Assessment” in L. Běhounek & M. Bílková (eds.),
The Logica Yearbook 2004, Prague: Filosofia, 2005, 161–176. 相似文献
9.
Cheng-Chih Tsai 《Erkenntnis》2012,76(1):101-114
A Leibnizian semantics proposed by Becker in 1952 for the modal operators has recently been reviewed in Copeland’s paper The Genesis of Possible World Semantics (Copeland in J Philos Logic 31:99–137, 2002), with a remark that “neither the binary relation nor the idea of proving completeness was present in Becker’s work”. In
light of Frege’s celebrated Sense-Determines-Reference principle, we find, however, that it is Becker’s semantics, rather
than Kripke’s semantics, that has captured the true spirit of Frege’s semantic program. Furthermore, for Kripke’s possible
world semantics to fit in Frege’s framework of senses, worlds and referents, it will have to be thoroughly reformulated. By introducing the notion of a hi-world into the picture, we manage to keep
the key ingredients of Becker’s semantics intact, while at the same time solve a fatal problem that used to shadow Becker’s
original semantics—it had not been able to make sense of inhomogeneous modality. The resulting generalized Beckerian semantics
provides, in effect, a Beckerian analysis of the Kripkean possible worlds. It reveals the subtle hierarchical internal structure
of a Kripkean world that has not been discovered before. 相似文献
10.
Isidora Stojanovic 《Erkenntnis》2012,76(1):49-58
It has been long known (Perry in Philos Rev 86: 474–497, 1977; No?s 13: 3–21, 1979, Lewis in Philos Rev 88: 513–543 1981) that de se attitudes, such as beliefs and desires that one has about oneself, call for a special treatment in theories of attitudinal content. The aim of this paper is to raise similar concerns for
theories of asserted content. The received view, inherited from Kaplan (1989), has it that if Alma says “I am hungry,” the asserted content, or what is said, is the proposition that Alma is hungry (at a given time). I argue that the received view has difficulties handling de se assertion, i.e., contents that one expresses using the first person pronoun, to assert something about oneself. I start from
the observation that when two speakers say “I am hungry,” one may truly report them as having said the same thing. It has
often been held that the possibility of such reports comes from the fact that the two speakers are, after all, uttering the
same words, and are in this sense “saying the same thing”. I argue that this approach fails, and that it is neither necessary
nor sufficient to use the same words, or words endowed with the same meaning, in order to be truly reported as same-saying.
I also argue that reports of same-saying in the case of de se assertion differ significantly from such reports in the case of two speakers merely implicating the same thing. 相似文献
11.
Donald Capps 《Pastoral Psychology》2011,60(5):619-631
In a previous article (Capps 2011) I discussed a short story and essay I wrote in high school and showed that themes that had figured prominently in my later
writings were prefigured in these earlier writings. Invoking John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress (1957) I concluded that the high school boy who lives inside of me has been my faithful companion throughout the years. In this
article I focus on a sermon I preached in my senior year of high school and on several poems I wrote that year. The sermon
and poems reflect my interest at the time in the harmful effects of silence on human relationships. An article that focused
on the son of Saint Augustine (Capps 1990b) signaled my return to the issue of silence after a thirty-year hiatus. My subsequent reading of Alice Miller’s Breaking Down the Wall of Silence (1991) and The Truth Shall Set You Free (2001) helped me to understand why silence had been a personal issue for me. It also encouraged me to listen to the fledgling poet
who lives within me and to appreciate his insights concerning silence and love. 相似文献
12.
Engaging African Americans in Therapy: Integrating a Public Policy and Family Therapy Perspective 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
The field of marriage and family therapy faces a growing imperative to reach historically underserved populations. African
Americans are a prime example of a minority group in the United States that continues to be underserved by the current mental
health system. We integrate Andersen’s (1995, Journal of Health and Social behavior, 36, 1–10) public policy model of health service use with Fox et al. (1995, Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 6, 434–468) revision of the rural de facto mental health services model (Regier and Goldberg, 1978, Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 685–693) to develop a more inclusive and culturally sensitive framework that captures salient factors influencing African
Americans’ entry into and engagement in therapy. Recommendations for overcoming barriers and suggestions for future research
are presented. 相似文献
13.
Maurice A. Finocchiaro 《Argumentation》2007,21(3):253-268
Krabbe (2003, in F.H. van Eemeren, J.A. Blair, C.A. Willard and A.F. Snoeck Henkemans (eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the International Society for the Study of Argumentation, Sic Sat, Amsterdam, pp. 641–644) defined a metadialogue as a dialogue about one or more dialogues, and a ground-level dialogue
as a dialogue that is not a metadialogue. Similarly, I define a meta-argument as an argument about one or more arguments,
and a ground-level argument as one which is not a meta-argument. Krabbe (1995, in F.H van Eemeren, R. Grootendorst, J.A. Blair, C.A. Willard and A.F. Snoeck Henkemans (eds.), Proceedings of the Third ISSA Conference on Argumentation, Sic Sat, Amsterdam, pp. 333–344) showed that formal-fallacy criticism (and more generally, fallacy criticism) consists of
metadialogues, and that such metadialogues can be profiled in ways that lead to their proper termination or resolution. I
reconstruct Krabbe’s metadialogical account into monolectical, meta-argumentative terminology by describing three-types of
meta-arguments corresponding to the three ways of proving formal invalidity he studied: the trivial logic-indifferent method;
the method of counterexample situation; and the method of formal paraphrase. A fourth type of meta-argument corresponds to
what Oliver (1967, Mind
76, 463–478), Govier (1985, Informal Logic
7, 27–33), and Copi (1986) call refutation by logical analogy. A fifth type of meta-argument represents my reconstruction of
arguments by parity of reasoning studied by Woods and Hudak (1989, Informal Logic
11, 125–139). Other particular meta-arguments deserving future study are Hume’s critique of the argument from design in the
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and Mill’s initial argument in The Subjection of Women about the importance of established custom and general feeling vis-à-vis argumentation. 相似文献
14.
Adrian Furnham 《Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.)》2009,28(4):225-239
In all, 187 participants completed a new, self-report measure of eight multiple intelligences (Haselbauer 2005), a General Knowledge test (Irwing et al. Personality and Individual Differences 30:857–871, 2001), a measure of Approaches to Learning Styles (Biggs 1987), a measure of the Big Five personality traits (Costa and McCrae 1992), as well as gave their own estimated scores on the Gardner (1999) multiple intelligences. Alpha co-efficients were modest with only three of the eight test-derived, multiple intelligence
scores being over .70. ‘Linguistic’ and Mathematical intelligence alone were correlated with General Knowledge. Five of the
eight ‘intelligences’ were correlated both with Extraversion and Openness. Regressions indicated that ‘Intrapersonal intelligence’
was closely linked with Stability and Conscientiousness; ‘Interpersonal intelligence’ with Extraversion; ‘Linguistic intelligence’
with Openness; ‘Mathematical intelligence’ with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Correlations between self-estimated and
test-derived emotional intelligence showed correlations ranging from r = .18 to r = .56 for similar type ‘intelligences’. This study provides modest evidence for the concurrent and construct validity of
this measure. It requires more psychometric evidence of validity before it is used. 相似文献
15.
Ethics researchers have scrutinized ethical business problems, which have been demonstrated through the actions of managers
at Enron, WorldCom, and Arthur Andersen, among others. In response to these business transgressions, the US government has
implemented the Sarbanes–Oxley Act to shore up businesses’ ethics infrastructures. However, universities, too, struggle with
ethics problems. These include NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) violations, discrimination issues, sexual harassment,
endowment admits, plagiarism, and research funding manipulation. Despite these problems, we have little knowledge regarding
universities’ ethics infrastructures and codes of conduct, and insignificant empirical research on academic ethics issues
(Kelley & Chang, Journal of Higher Education, under review, 2006; Morgan & Korschgen, College Student Journal, Sept., 2001). This lack of knowledge exists despite the critical role universities play in shaping the moral behavior of future generations
(Langlais, The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 13:B11, 2006; Woo, BizEd, May/June:22–27, 2003). In this paper, we conduct exploratory research to identify the elements of universities ethics’ infrastructures. From our
research, we develop an understanding of the ethics policies and infrastructure elements in place at a representative group
of universities. We compare these infrastructures to those in business as well as across Carnegie Classifications. We then
conclude with recommendations for developing university ethics infrastructures and suggestions for future research. 相似文献
16.
MacLeod CM 《Psychonomic bulletin & review》2011,18(6):1197-1202
Saying a word out loud makes it more memorable than simply reading it silently. This robust finding has been labeled the production effect and has been attributed to the enhanced distinctiveness of produced relative to unproduced items (MacLeod et al. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 671–685, 2010). Produced items have the additional information that they were spoken aloud encoded in their representations, and this information
is useful during retrieval in certifying prior encoding. The present study explored whether production must be self-performed
to be beneficial, or whether another person’s production also makes an item more memorable. In two experiments, the production
effect was shown to be reliable when production was done by someone other than the rememberer (i.e., by the experimenter or
by another participant), but substantially smaller than the benefit from self-performed production. Intriguingly, the effect
was intermediate when production was done by both the rememberer and another person. Distinctiveness—and hence the production
effect—is greatest to the extent that it is personal. 相似文献
17.
Gagné and Spalding (Brain and Language, 90, 478–486, 2004, Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 20–35, 2009) have shown that the difficulty of interpreting an established compound (e.g., snowball) can be influenced by recent exposure to a compound with the same modifier and that this influence depends on the relation
linking the constituents of the compound. For example, snowball (a ball made of snow) was processed more quickly following snowfort (a fort made of snow; same relation) than following snowshovel (a shovel for snow; different relation). In three experiments, we investigated the basis of this relation-priming effect.
The results indicated that the relation-priming effect in established compounds is due to slower processing in the different-relation
condition rather than to faster processing in the same-relation condition. These results pose a challenge for most models
of compound-word processing. 相似文献
18.
The change detection paradigm has become an important tool for researchers studying working memory. Change detection is especially
useful for studying visual working memory, because recall paradigms are difficult to employ in the visual modality. Pashler
(Perception & Psychophysics, 44, 369–378, 1988) and Cowan (Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87–114, 2001) suggested formulas for estimating working memory capacity from change detection data. Although these formulas have become
widely used, Morey (Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55, 8–24, 2011) showed that the formulas suffer from a number of issues, including inefficient use of information, bias, volatility, uninterpretable
parameter estimates, and violation of ANOVA assumptions. Morey presented a hierarchical Bayesian extension of Pashler’s and
Cowan’s basic models that mitigates these issues. Here, we present WoMMBAT (Working Memory Modeling using Bayesian Analysis
Techniques) software for fitting Morey’s model to data. WoMMBAT has a graphical user interface, is freely available, and is
cross-platform, running on Windows, Linux, and Mac operating systems. 相似文献
19.
Several theorists have proposed that distinctions are needed between different positive emotional states, and that these discriminations
may be particularly useful in the domain of vocal signals (Ekman, 1992b, Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169–200; Scherer, 1986, Psychological Bulletin, 99, 143–165). We report an investigation into the hypothesis that positive basic emotions have distinct vocal expressions (Ekman,
1992b, Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169–200). Non-verbal vocalisations are used that map onto five putative positive emotions: Achievement/Triumph, Amusement,
Contentment, Sensual Pleasure, and Relief. Data from categorisation and rating tasks indicate that each vocal expression is
accurately categorised and consistently rated as expressing the intended emotion. This pattern is replicated across two language
groups. These data, we conclude, provide evidence for the existence of robustly recognisable expressions of distinct positive
emotions. 相似文献
20.
The possibility that memory awareness occurs in nonhuman animals has been evaluated by providing opportunity to decline memory
tests. Current evidence suggests that rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) selectively decline tests when memory is weak (Hampton in Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:5359–5362, 2001; Smith et al. in Behav Brain Sci 26:317–374, 2003). However, much of the existing research in nonhuman metacognition is subject to the criticism that, after considerable training
on one test type, subjects learn to decline difficult trials based on associative learning of external test-specific contingencies
rather than by evaluating the private status of memory or other cognitive states. We evaluated whether such test-specific
associations could account for performance by presenting monkeys with a series of generalization tests across which no single
association with external stimuli was likely to adaptively control use of the decline response. Six monkeys performed a four
alternative delayed matching to location task and were significantly more accurate on trials with a decline option available
than on trials without it, indicating that subjects selectively declined tests when memory was weak. Monkeys transferred appropriate
use of the decline response under three conditions that assessed generalization: two tests that weakened memory and one test
that enhanced memory in a novel way. Bidirectional generalization indicates that use of the decline response by monkeys is
not controlled by specific external stimuli but is rather a flexible behavior based on a private assessment of memory. 相似文献