Validation of physical ability tests for high pressure cleaning occupations

This paper describes the development and validation of a physical performance test battery to select high pressure cleaning workers at Tennessee Eastman Company. The research uses a concurrent, criterion-related validation strategy to demonstrate the relationship between test performance and job performance. The study proceeded through four stages, with data collected in one stage used in subsequent stages. The two types of predictor measures included ability tests and work sample simulations. For some analyses, the work sample simulations were also used as criteria. Four samples of incumbents (N=63) were tested on all experimental measures. Using criterion groups of successful incumbents and unsuccessful former incumbents (N=33), all of the work simulation tests and the ability-referenced tests were significant predictors of successful versus unsuccessful job status. In addition, the ability tests predicted performance on the work sample simulations, particularly for those requiring strength and endurance. A battery of three ability tests resulted in R=.68 for job status and in R=.43, .73, .80, and .84, respectively, for each of the work sample simulations. Two of the three ability tests in the final test battery are likely to result in adverse impact against females. However, data collected on female maintenance technicians indicated women, as a group, would not be screened out categorically as a result of implementing the physical ability test battery.     

The Dimensions of Human Physical Performance: Factor Analysis of Strength,Stamina, Flexibility,and Body Composition Measures

Based on a review of the literature on exercise physiology and on factor analy- sis of individual differences in physical task performance, confirmatory and principal axis factor analyses were carried out on tests selected or designed to cover a wide range of physical abilities. Tests were selected to test certain hy- potheses about the nature and definitions of abilities accounting for individ- ual differences in physical task performance. Tests were administered to 206 subjects, ages 19-36, including 102 men and 104 women. The results confirmed earlier findings of Fleishman and his associates and clarified and ex- tended these earlier results regarding the nature and definition of physical abilities. The six-factor model supported included Static Strength, Dynamic Strength, Explosive Strength, and Bunk Strength, Stamina (cardiovascular endurance), and Flexibility. A common factor structure was found for men and women. Percent of body fat was found to relate to performance in some physical abilities (Stamina and Dynamic Strength) but not to others, and the relations were found only for the male sample. The results demonstrate the need to partial out the effects of gender differences from correlations among strength tests when examining the factor structure of physical test batteries; without partialling out such gender differences, more general or highly correl- ated factors are obtained, due mainly to sex differences in performance. Partialling out those differences due to gender results in more highly differentiated factors. Guidelines for selecting those physical ability tests that are most diagnostic of the different physical abilities, for men and for women were indicated. Evidence regarding the relevance of these and other physical ability constructs for the analysis of occupational tasks, and for the prediction of performance in physically demanding jobs is presented.     

Transitioning from recruit to officer: An investigation of how stress appraisal and coping influence work engagement

This study investigated stress, coping, and work engagement among Portuguese police officers while undergoing academy training and then 1 year later, when on duty. It was hypothesized that stress appraisal and coping preferences predicted engagement. Additionally, in order to test a full cross‐lagged prediction model, it was hypothesized that stress, coping, and engagement in recruits predicted these variables later when working as police officers. Structural equation modeling was used to test the research hypotheses. Results suggest that coping and stress appraisals do not seem to be strong predictors of work engagement among recruits and police officers on duty. With the exception of self‐blame, that seems to be a strong predictor of work engagement among police officers on duty. These results highlight the need to investigate other potential variables such as working conditions that may better explain work engagement. Considering the positive influence of engagement on health, wellbeing, and performance of police recruits and officers future applied and theoretical implications are discussed.     

Job demands,work‐family conflict,and emotional exhaustion in police officers: A longitudinal test of competing theories

We propose and test a comprehensive theory designed to explain seemingly contradictory relations between job demands, emotional exhaustion, and work‐family conflict (WFC) reported in the literature. Using job demands‐resources theory, effort‐recovery theory, and personal resources theory we hypothesized that job demands would spillover to emotional exhaustion as mediated by WFC (causality model), and alternatively that job demands would also spillover to WFC as mediated by emotional exhaustion (reverse causal model). Further, we also hypothesized using loss spiral theory that a more comprehensive model representing reciprocal and cross‐linked effects (causal and reverse causal simultaneously) would best fit the data. The hypotheses were tested in a longitudinal study of 257 Australian (Victorian) frontline police officers at two time points approximately 12 months apart. We used structural equation modelling and found in support of the simultaneous reciprocal effects hypothesis, that the more comprehensive model fitted the data better than either the causality or the reverse causal model. Future research should more comprehensively model the important relationships between job demands, emotional exhaustion, and WFC to reflect their complex interplay. Interventions to reduce work demands arising from work pressure and emotional demands are indicated to prevent conflict at home and emotional exhaustion in police officers.     

PREDICTING LONG-TERM FIREFIGHTER PERFORMANCE FROM COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL ABILITY MEASURES

Firefighters from 1 academy training class were observed for 23 years, beginning with their selection test consisting of a g-saturated written exam (GCA) and firefighting simulations loaded on a strength/endurance (SE) factor. Operational validity coefficients for both GCA and SE were high for training success and remained consistently high for job performance ratings throughout the study. The operational validity for combined GCA and SE predictors was .86 for a composite job rating measure covering 21 years of service. A structural model produced similar results for more broadly defined GCA and SE latent variables. Both analyses suggested approximately equal weighting for GCA and SE for a fire service selection test. Results indicate considerable latitude in choosing cognitive and physical predictors for firefighter screening if the predictors are highly loaded on GCA and SE.     

Appraisal and coping processes in acute time-limited stressful situations: A study of police officers

This study focuses on the appraisal and coping process in acute, time-limited stressful situations in a stress experienced group: 54 Swedish police officers. Each police officer retrospectively reported their thoughts, emotions, and actions during five recent stressful job events. The relations among appraisals of threat and of coping options, seven forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies, and selfrated performance were examined. Compared with previous studies of ordinary people in stressful situations, the police officers felt less threatened, appraised the situations as more solvable, and used considerably more problem-focused forms of coping. Age had a significant effect on appraisal, while organizational position had a significant effect on coping. Using latent profile analysis, four appraisal styles were obtained. Consistency of cross-situational appraisal style amongst individuals was high. The functional relationships among variables, i.e. appraisal, coping, and performance, are discussed.     

Police officers ability to detect deception in high stakes situations and in repeated lie detection tests

Thirty‐seven police officers, not identified in previous research as belonging to groups that are superior in lie detection, attempted to detect truths and lies told by suspects during their videotaped police interviews. In order to measure consistency in their ability, the officers each participated in four different tests, each of which was on a different day. They were asked to indicate their confidence in being able to distinguish between truths and lies prior to the first test and after completing all four tests. We predicted that accuracy rates would be higher than those typically found in research with police officers; that good or poor performances on an individual test would be partly caused by luck, and, consequently, participants' accuracy scores were likely to progress towards the mean if their performance on all four tests was to be combined; and that officers would underestimate their own performance. These hypotheses were supported. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using a person-environment fit model to predict job involvement and organizational commitment

Using a sample of registered nurses from a large urban hospital, this longitudinal study tested the applicability of a person-environment fit model for predicting job involvement and organizational commitment. The personal variables in this model were Protestant work ethic and growth need strength, and the environmental variable was perceived job scope. Prior to testing the person-environment fit model, the discriminant validity of job involvement and organizational commitment scales was empirically established through factor analysis. The results of this study indicated that the proposed person-environment fit model is useful for predicting job involvement, but not organizational commitment. Results and limitations of the study are discussed.     

Citizen participation in police crisis intervention activities

A naturalistic experiment tested the proposition that police time could be saved in nondangerous crisis intervention calls through the use of citizen participants. Results showed that police officers who used citizen intervention spent less time per call than officers who did not. However, police time was not saved in family disturbance calls. Family disturbance control group calls were rated by police as having a higher degree of physical danger present than other calls.     

TEST OF A MULTISTAGE MODEL OF DISTAL AND PROXIMAL ANTECEDENTS OF LEADER PERFORMANCE

The authors developed and tested a multistage model of distal and proximal predictors of leader performance in an effort to shed greater light on the intermediate linkages between broad leader traits and performance. Predictor and criterion data were obtained from 471 noncommissioned officers in the U.S. Army. A model with cognitive ability and 3 of the Big 5 personality factors as distal antecedents, leadership experiences and motivation to lead as semidistal antecedents, and the knowledge, skills, and ability (KSAs) to lead as proximal antecedents of leader performance provided a good fit to the data. More specifically, the effects of the distal and semidistal antecedents on leader performance were partially mediated by more proximal variables, whereas leader KSAs demonstrated a relatively strong, direct influence on performance. The 1 exception was that Conscientiousness—a hypothesized distal antecedent—had a notable direct effect on leader performance. The implications of these findings for leadership research and practice are discussed.     

Conscientiousness,Its Facets,and the Prediction of Job Performance Ratings: Evidence against the narrow measures

This study empirically tested the predictions of the three basic perspectives on the bandwidth debate about the relationship between personality and job performance, regarding the validity of conscientiousness and its facets. The sample consisted of 226 police officers. Conscientiousness and three facets (order, industriousness, and self‐control) were correlated with three performance criteria (overall job performance, task performance, and orderliness). A Schmid–Leiman transformation made it possible to residualize the variance of the facets and to isolate their unique contribution to the prediction of performance measures. The results showed that conscientiousness predicted the three criteria (true validities of.25,.28 and.37, respectively) and that the facets neither predicted job performance nor showed incremental validity over conscientiousness. Finally, the implications of the findings for theory and practice are commented on, and future research is suggested.     

Explaining Police Corruption among Mexican Police Officers through a Social Learning Perspective

This study examines the causes of corruption among Mexican police officers through the lens of social learning theory. Self-administered questionnaires were used to gather information about behavior of corruption, economic situation, job dissatisfaction, lack of commitment, and definitions and reinforcement favorable to corruption among a sample of Mexican police officers. Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis was used to determine whether differential reinforcement and definitions help to explain levels of corruption among sampled police officers. Results show that positive definitions and reinforcement towards corruption are significant predictors of police corruption, and partially mediate the effect of job dissatisfaction on corruption.     

Decision-related action orientation predicts police officers' shooting performance under pressure

Background and Objectives: We aimed to test whether police officers’ trait self-control strength decreases negative effects of high pressure (HP) on state anxiety, shooting behavior, and shooting performance. Design and Methods: Forty-two officers performed a shooting test under both high and low-pressure (LP) conditions. Self-control strength was assessed with the decision-related action orientation (AOD) scale of the Action Control Scale (ACS-90). Effects of AOD on perceived anxiety, heart rate, shooting time, and shot accuracy were estimated and controlled for those of other individual difference measures (i.e. age, police working experience, trait anxiety, and threat-related action orientation). Results: After controlling for baseline values in the LP condition as well as the other individual difference measures, AOD significantly predicted shot accuracy in the HP condition. Conclusions: Results suggest that trait self-control strength in the form of AOD helps officers cope with anxiety and maintain perceptual-motor performance under HP.     

Interrelationships among biological markers of aging, health, activity, acculturation, and cognitive performance in late adulthood

In this study a structural equation model of predictors of age differences in cognitive performance in late adulthood was developed. Biological markers of aging (vision, hearing, vibration sense, forced expiratory volume, and grip strength) were used as indicators of a latent variable called BioAge. A sample of 180 community-dwelling women aged 60 to 90 years was assessed. Results showed that BioAge explained all of the age-related variance in cognitive test performance. Physical health and physical activity had direct effects on BioAge. Measures of acculturation explained non-age-related variance in cognitive test performance. Some variables used as biomarkers also explained individual differences in measures of crystallized intelligence and perceptual speed. It is concluded that the association between biomarkers and cognition in old age is due to more than a common statistical association with age.     

Workplace support, discrimination, and person-organization fit: tests of the theory of work adjustment with LGB individuals

The present study explored the links of 2 workplace contextual variables--perceptions of workplace heterosexist discrimination and lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB)-supportive climates--with job satisfaction and turnover intentions in a sample of LGB employees. An extension of the theory of work adjustment (TWA) was used as the conceptual framework for the study; as such, perceived person-organization (P-O) fit was tested as a mediator of the relations between the workplace contextual variables and job outcomes. Data were analyzed from 326 LGB employees. Zero-order correlations indicated that perceptions of workplace heterosexist discrimination and LGB-supportive climates were correlated in expected directions with P-O fit, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to compare multiple alternative measurement models evaluating the discriminant validity of the 2 workplace contextual variables relative to one another, and the 3 TWA job variables relative to one another; SEM was also used to test the hypothesized mediation model. Comparisons of multiple alternative measurement models supported the construct distinctiveness of the variables of interest. The test of the hypothesized structural model revealed that only LGB-supportive climates (and not workplace heterosexist discrimination) had a unique direct positive link with P-O fit and, through the mediating role of P-O fit, had significant indirect positive and negative relations with job satisfaction and turnover intentions, respectively. Moreover, P-O fit had a significant indirect negative link with turnover intentions through job satisfaction.     

Toward an understanding of psychological burnout among police officers

This study examined a research model developed to understand psychological burnout among police officers. Data were collected from 828 men and women in police work using questionnaires completed anonymously. Five groups of predictor variables identified in previous research were considered: individual demographic and situational variables, work stressors, stressful events, work-family conflict and coping responses. Sources of stress (chronic stressors, stressful events, work-family conflict) were significantly related to levels of psychological burnout when individual demographic and situational variables were controlled.     

Daily suppression of discrete emotions during the work of police service workers and criminal investigation officers

The aim of the present research among Dutch police officers was to examine whether fluctuations in emotional job demands predict exhaustion through the suppression of discrete emotions. A first diary study (N =25) tested how the suppression of discrete emotions is related to exhaustion at the end of the work shift of police call-center service workers. Results revealed that suppressing anger was positively related to exhaustion at the end of a work shift, whereas suppressing happiness was not. A second study (N=41) among criminal investigation officers showed that the emotions anger, abhorrence, and sadness were among the most common negative emotions that were suppressed as part of the emotional labor of this specialized occupational group. Results of a third (diary) study (N=39) confirmed that emotional dissonance and more particularly the suppression of abhorrence mediated the relationship between emotional job demands and exhaustion at the end of a work shift.     

Individual Differences, Situational Constraints, and Police Shooting Incidents

Differences in the personal nature of police officers as well as differences among the situational constraints due to assignments are considered in an examination of the occurrences of police involvement in shooting incidents. The Poisson and negative binomial models used in accident research are considered for representing the occurrence of shooting incidents. Data were gathered from incidents in a large metropolitan police department over a 34-month period and used to test the two models. Various analyses indicate a good Poisson fit. Implications of the data are discussed.     

Perceived Authoritarianism in Self and Others by Male College Students and Police Officers

This study tested 62 police officers and 62 college males on their own authoritarianism and their estimates of the authoritarian beliefs of the other group. College students perceived police officers as much more authoritarian than the officers represented themselves as being ( p < .0001). Officers were accurate in their estimations of students' authoritarianism, and there was no difference between officers and students in their characterizations of their own authoritarianism. The differences between these findings and those in much of the literature (especially that from the early 1970s) may be due to differences in police experience: Many of the officers in this sample had some college and thus direct experience with students. It may also be that officers are now being specifically chosen on the basis of less authoritarian attitudes. The results imply that rather than focusing on changing the attitudes of officers, police departments desiring better public relations might do well to concentrate on correcting public opinion.