Factors of the psychopathic personality inventory: criterion-related validity and relationship to the BIS/BAS and five-factor models of personality

Psychopathy is a personality disorder that includes interpersonal-affective and antisocial deviance features. The Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) contains two underlying factors (fearless dominance and impulsive antisociality) that may differentially tap these two sets of features. In a mixed-gender sample of undergraduates and prisoners, we found that PPI fearless dominance was related to low Behavioral Inhibition System activity, high Behavioral Activation System (BAS) activity, expert prototype psychopathy scores, and primary psychopathy. Impulsive antisociality was related to high BAS activity and all psychopathy measures. High Extraversion and Openness and low Neuroticism and Agreeableness predicted fearless dominance, whereas high Neuroticism and low Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted impulsive antisociality. Although low levels of Agreeableness predicted both PPI factors, their differential relations with other five-factor model traits highlight differences in the way psychopathy manifests itself. Consistent with movements toward assessing personality disorder using the five-factor model, the authors report regression-based equations for the clinical assessment of these psychopathy dimensions using the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R).     

Clarifying the role of defensive reactivity deficits in psychopathy and antisocial personality using startle reflex methodology

Prior research has demonstrated deficits in defensive reactivity (indexed by potentiation of the startle blink reflex) in psychopathic individuals. However, the basis of this association remains unclear, as diagnostic criteria for psychopathy encompass two distinct phenotypic components that may reflect differing neurobiological mechanisms-an affective-interpersonal component and an antisocial deviance component. Likewise, the role of defensive response deficits in antisocial personality disorder (APD), a related but distinct syndrome, remains to be clarified. In the current study, the authors examined affective priming deficits in relation to factors of psychopathy and symptoms of APD using startle reflex methods in 108 adult male prisoners. Deficits in blink reflex potentiation during aversive picture viewing were found in relation to the affective-interpersonal (Factor 1) component of psychopathy, and to a lesser extent in relation to the antisocial deviance (Factor 2) component of psychopathy and symptoms of APD-but only as a function of their overlap with affective-interpersonal features of psychopathy. These findings provide clear evidence that deficits in defensive reactivity are linked specifically to the affective-interpersonal features of psychopathy and not to the antisocial deviance features represented most strongly in APD.     

Relations between cyclothymic temperament and borderline personality disorder traits in non-clinical adolescents

ObjectivesThe aim of the present study was to examine the relation between cyclothymic temperament and borderline personality disorder traits in adolescents and to identify a typology of adolescents based on temperamental traits (cyclothymic temperament and BPD traits).Participants and methodsA sample of 312 adolescents completed several questionnaires assessing cyclothymic temperament, borderline personality disorder traits, depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, antisocial behaviors and frequency of cannabis use.ResultsThe Cyclothymic-Hypersensitive Temperament (CHT) questionnaire and the Borderline Personality Features Scale for Children (BPFS-C) were highly correlated which suggests that these scales may measure the same construct. Factor analyses of the pooled items of both scales yielded two factors, ‘anger–impulsivity’ and ‘affective instability’, both composed half of items from both scales. The relation between these traits and suicidal ideation was fully mediated by depressive symptomatology. Cluster analysis showed that these traits may occur independently and that adolescents with both traits had the highest levels of depressive symptoms, suicidal ideations and antisocial behaviors.DiscussionThe CHT questionnaire and the BPFS-C may measure the same construct which appeared relevant for defining a subgroup of adolescents with high levels of depressive symptoms, suicidal ideations and antisocial behaviors.     

Predictive validity of callous-unemotional traits measured in early adolescence with respect to multiple antisocial outcomes

This study investigated the predictive validity of youth callous-unemotional (CU) traits, as measured in early adolescence (Grade 7) by the Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD; Frick & Hare, 2001), in a longitudinal sample (N = 754). Antisocial outcomes, assessed in adolescence and early adulthood, included self-reported general delinquency from 7th grade through 2 years post-high school, self-reported serious crimes through 2 years post-high school, juvenile and adult arrest records through 1 year post-high school, and antisocial personality disorder symptoms and diagnosis at 2 years post-high school. CU traits measured in 7th grade were highly predictive of 5 of the 6 antisocial outcomes-general delinquency, juvenile and adult arrests, and early adult antisocial personality disorder criterion count and diagnosis-over and above prior and concurrent conduct problem behavior (i.e., criterion counts of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (criterion count). Incorporating a CU traits specifier for those with a diagnosis of conduct disorder improved the positive prediction of antisocial outcomes, with a very low false-positive rate. There was minimal evidence of moderation by sex, race, or urban/rural status. Urban/rural status moderated one finding, with being from an urban area associated with stronger relations between CU traits and adult arrests. Findings clearly support the inclusion of CU traits as a specifier for the diagnosis of conduct disorder, at least with respect to predictive validity.     

Factor structure of the psychopathic personality inventory: validity and implications for clinical assessment

Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by impulsive antisocial deviance in the context of emotional and interpersonal detachment. A factor analysis of the subscales of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) yielded evidence for 2 factors. One factor showed relations with external criteria mirroring those of the emotional-interpersonal facet of psychopathy, including high dominance, low anxiety, and venturesomeness. The other factor showed relations paralleling those of the social deviance facet of psychopathy, including positive correlations with antisocial behavior and substance abuse, negative correlations with socioeconomic status and verbal ability, and personality characteristics including high negative emotionally and low behavioral constraint. Findings support using the PPI to assess these facets of psychopathy in community samples and to explore their behavioral correlates and genetic-neurobiological underpinnings.     

Construct validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory in a correctional sample

The relations between the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) and 4 theoretically related constructs (empathy, aggression, work ethic, and borderline personality disorder) were examined. Additionally, the relation between the PPI and heroism was explored. One hundred male inmates were administered the PPI, the Questionnaire Measure of Emotional Empathy (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972), the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992), the Protestant Ethic Scale (Mirels & Garrett, 1971), the Self-Report for Borderline Personality Scale (Oldham et al., 1985), and the Activity Frequency Inventory (Lilienfeld, 1998). As predicted, the PPI was significantly negatively correlated with empathy and significantly positively related to aggression and borderline personality. Contrary to prediction, the correlation between the PPI and work ethic was not significant. Eight of 11 hypotheses regarding the relations of the PPI subscales to these 4 constructs were corroborated. Results support the construct validity of the PPI in a correctional sample. The exploratory analysis of the relation between the PPI and heroism revealed no significant relations.     

Sadistic personality disorder in sex offenders: relationship to antisocial personality disorder and sexual sadism.

To investigate the relationship of sadistic personality disorder (SPD), as defined in the appendix of DSM-III-R, to other personality disorders and to sexual sadism, 70 sex offenders (27 child molesters, 33 rapists, and 10 murderers) were assessed by the International Personality Disorder Examination. In 19 subjects (27.2%) from the total sample, SPD was diagnosed. The highest overlap appeared with borderline personality disorder (31.6%) and antisocial personality disorder (42.1%). However, in four cases SPD was the only personality disorder diagnosed. Factor analysis of the antisocial and sadistic criteria resulted in four major factors--one factor with high loadings on the sadistic criteria and the violent criteria of antisocial personality disorder, two factors with different forms of adult and juvenile aggression, and a fourth factor with high loadings on the antisocial criteria covering exploitative behavior. The results do not support SPD as a discrete disorder. Nevertheless, SPD may be seen as an important subdimension of antisocial personality disorder, distinct from more exploitative forms of antisocial behavior with less violence. Of those patients with SPD, 42.1% also had a DSM-III-R diagnosis of sexual sadism, which may be the most dangerous configuration.     

Examining antisocial behavior through the lens of the five factor model of personality

The current study attempts to provide greater precision in understanding how personality is related to antisocial behavior. Specifically, we examined the relations between the facets (subordinate traits) from three domains (superordinate dimensions): Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness, of the Five Factor Model and five outcome variables: stability of conduct problems, variety of conduct problems, onset of conduct problems, aggression, and antisocial personality disorder symptoms. These relations were examined in a community sample of 481 individuals. These three personality dimensions were chosen for exploration due to their consistent relations, at the domain level, with antisocial behaviors. The results from this study suggest that the facets from the dimension of Agreeableness are the most consistently related to all five outcomes. However, the facets from all three domains made significant contributions. Overall, three personality traits stood out as being the strongest and most consistent predictors: low straightforwardness, low compliance, and low deliberation. Implications for prevention and intervention are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 29:497–514, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Alcohol and drug abuse-dependence disorders in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic criminal offenders

Co-occurrence of psychopathy (assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist) and lifetime Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.) alcohol and drug disorders (assessed with the National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule) was examined in a sample of 360 male inmates. Consistent with previous research that used diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder, psychopaths were more likely than nonpsychopaths to have lifetime diagnoses of alcoholism, any drug disorder, and multiple drug disorders. We also examined the relation between substance abuse and the 2 factors of the Psychopathy Checklist. Substance abuse was significantly related to general social deviance (Factor 2) but was unrelated to core personality features of psychopathy (Factor 1). We present two possible models of psychopathy (unitary syndrome vs. dual-diathesis model) that may account for the association between psychopathy and substance abuse.     

Dual temperamental risk factors for psychopathic personality: evidence from self-report and skin conductance

Psychopathy is a personality disorder consisting of dysfunctional affective interpersonal features (Factor 1) and impulsive-antisocial behavior (Factor 2) that exhibit differential associations with palmar skin conductance (SC) reactivity. The goal of this study was to determine whether the distinct SC reactivity observed in incarcerated psychopaths generalizes to university students who score high on personality dimensions hypothesized to be the risk factors for these psychopathy factors. Lilienfeld's Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) was used to compute scores on 2 factor-analytically derived dimensions that have been the focus of recent research in psychopathy. PPI-1 is hypothesized to relate to the low-fear temperamental risk factor, whereas PPI-2 is hypothesized to relate to regulatory dysfunction. SC reactivity was measured during tasks previously used in studies of diagnosed psychopaths. Results indicated that PPI-1 was associated with reduced SC during anticipation of an aversive noise and PPI-2 was associated with enhanced SC reactivity during presentation of a speech about one's faults. Additional analyses explored an 8-factor solution of the PPI and 3 temperament dimensions derived from factor analysis of several personality measures. Together, the SC results suggest that the Factor 1 pathway, best captured with refined assessments of behavioral fearlessness, related to reduced SC reactivity to an aversive noise-consistent with a weak defense system. The Factor 2 pathway, best captured by higher order dimensions reflecting externalizing, disinhibited forms of negative temperament, related to enhanced SC reactivity to a speech stressor-consistent with high stress reactivity.     

Further evidence of the divergent correlates of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory factors: prediction of institutional misconduct among male prisoners

Recent evidence suggests that 2 largely orthogonal dimensions underpin the latent construct assessed by the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996): Fearless Dominance (PPI-I) and Impulsive Antisociality (PPI-II). Relatively few data exist on the correlates of these 2 dimensions in offender samples, however. The present study examines the criterion-related validity of these 2 dimensions among male prison inmates (N = 131) in relation to the prediction of 3 categories of institutional maladjustment: aggressive misconduct, nonaggressive misconduct, and any misconduct. PPI-II significantly predicted each criterion type, with effect sizes of moderate magnitude, whereas PPI-I was essentially unrelated to these outcome measures.     

Are Self‐Report Measures of Adaptive Functioning Appropriate for those High in Psychopathic Traits?

There is ongoing debate about the methods that evaluators should use to assess the adaptive functioning of an individual in an Atkins claim, including the appropriateness of using self‐report measures and extent to which adaptive functioning measures are valid for persons with a history of violent offending. This study examined whether offenders' self‐report adaptive functioning scores tended to decrease as their level of psychopathic traits increased. Eighty‐five male felony probationers completed the self‐report version of the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System – II (ABAS‐II: Harrison & Oakland, 2003), the Psychopathic Personality Inventory – Revised (PPI‐R: Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005), and a brief intelligence screening measure. ABAS‐II composite scores were negatively correlated with PPI‐R Self‐Centered Impulsivity and Coldheartedness scores, but positively correlated with Fearless Dominance scores. These relationships appeared to be due, in part, to over‐reporting symptoms of impairment across measures, suggesting that scores on self‐report adaptive functioning measures may be especially susceptible to feigning. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationship between clinician assessment and self-assessment of personality disorders using the SWAP-200 and PAI

The relation between self- and peer-informant reports of personality using psychometric instruments has been the focus of considerable research. The quantified judgments of clinically experienced observers such as treating clinicians have also been studied. The focus of the present article is on the measurement of 3 personality disorders (borderline, antisocial, and obsessive-compulsive) using the Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure (SWAP-200), an instrument designed to quantify personality ratings made by clinically experienced informants, and the self-report Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI). SWAP-200 personality disorder scales showed small to medium correlations with borderline and antisocial personality disorder scales from the PAI. As predicted, SWAP-200 obsessive-compulsive personality disorder correlated negatively with these scales, suggesting discriminant validity.     

Using the FFM to conceptualize psychopathy: a test using a drug abusing sample

The present study examined whether psychopathy can be understood as a constellation of traits from the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality. Using a prototype matching approach, we examined the ability of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992) to represent psychopathy in a sample of 297 male and female known crack cocaine abusers. Importantly, we examined the convergence and divergence between FFM psychopathy and other personality disorders assessed using the FFM. FFM psychopathy was correlated with self-reports of antisocial behavior, drug use, risky sex, and externalizing and internalizing disorder symptoms. As expected, there was overlap in the relations between psychopathy and several Cluster B personality disorders, but there were also important points of divergence. These results further extend the nomological network of FFM psychopathy and provide additional support for considering psychopathy a constellation of personality traits from a general model.     

Disinhibitory trait profile and its relation to Cluster B personality disorder features and substance use problems

Certain personality and motivational traits may present vulnerability towards disinhibitory psychopathology (e.g. antisocial personality disorder, substance abuse). Cluster analysis was used to separately group 306 women and 274 men on impulsivity, Constraint, Negative Emotionality, behavioural activation system (BAS), and behavioural inhibition system (BIS) scores. As expected, a ‘disinhibited’ group with low Constraint, high impulsivity, weak BIS, and strong BAS emerged that showed elevated drug use problems, and histrionic and antisocial personality disorder features across gender. A ‘high affectivity’ group with high Negative Emotionality and strong BIS also showed elevated drug use problems and personality disorder features. Results suggested that two different trait profiles are associated with disinhibitory psychopathology and both may present vulnerability toward the development of such disorders. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Personality and prejudice: a meta-analysis and theoretical review

Despite a substantial literature examining personality, prejudice, and related constructs such as Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), there have been no systematic reviews in this area. The authors reviewed and meta-analyzed 71 studies (N = 22,068 participants) investigating relationships between Big Five dimensions of personality, RWA, SDO, and prejudice. RWA was predicted by low Openness to Experience but also Conscientiousness, whereas SDO was predicted by low Agreeableness and also weakly by low Openness to Experience. Consistent with a dual-process motivational model of ideology and prejudice, the effects of Agreeableness on prejudice were fully mediated by SDO, and those of Openness to Experience were largely mediated by RWA. Finally, the effects of Agreeableness and Openness to Experience were robust and consistent across samples, although subtle moderating factors were identified, including differences in personality inventory (NEO Personality Inventory-Revised vs. Big Five Inventory), differences across prejudice domain, and cross-cultural differences in Conscientiousness and Neuroticism. Implications for the study of personality and prejudice are discussed.     

Estimating facets of psychopathy from normal personality traits: a step toward community epidemiological investigations

In three samples consisting of community and undergraduate men and women and incarcerated men, we examined the criterion validity of two distinct factors of psychopathy embodied in the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) as indexed by primary trait scales from the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). Consistent with the PPI factors themselves, MPQ-estimated PPI-I related negatively with internalizing disorder symptoms and fearfulness and positively with thrill and adventure seeking, sociability, activity, and narcissism. MPQ-estimated PPI-II was associated negatively with socialization and positively with externalizing disorder symptoms, impulsivity, disinhibition and boredom susceptibility, and trait anxiety and negative emotionality. Additionally, PPI-I was selectively related to the interpersonal facet of Factor 1 of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), whereas PPI-II was related preferentially to Factor 2 of the PCL-R.     

Validation of the UPPS impulsive behaviour scale: a four‐factor model of impulsivity

The current study attempts to clarify the multi‐faceted nature of impulsivity through the use of the four‐factor UPPS Impulsive Behaviour scale. In order to build the nomological network surrounding this scale, the UPPS was administered to individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD), pathological gamblers (PG), alcohol abusers (divided into two groups based on the presence of antisocial features), and a control group. Several of the UPPS scales (e.g. Urgency, lack of Premeditation, and Sensation Seeking) differentiated the BPD, PG, and alcohol abusers with antisocial features from a group of non‐antisocial alcohol abusers and a control group. Overall, the UPPS scales accounted for between 7% (pathological gambling) and 64% (borderline personality disorder features) of the overall variance in the psychopathology measures. Individual UPPS scales also made unique contributions to several of these disorders, which may provide insight into which of these personality traits may predispose individuals to behave in maladaptive or problematic ways. The results provide support for the differentiation of impulsivity‐related constructs into the current four‐factor model. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychopathic Traits in Boys With and Without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Concurrent and Longitudinal Correlates

To investigate the role of psychopathic traits in a clinical and comparison sample, we obtained dimensional California Child Q-Set (CCQ) personality profiles for 66 preadolescent boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and 56 comparison boys during naturalistic summer programs and correlated each boy's CCQ profile with an expert-derived CCQ psychopathy prototype. These scores, representing each boy's degree of similarity to the prototype, were significantly associated with concurrent externalizing diagnoses and symptoms and, with statistical control of these externalizing features, concurrent measures of objectively observed noncompliance, overt and covert antisocial behavior, and peer sociometric nominations indexing peer rejection. Psychopathic traits were not associated with peer acceptance. CCQ psychopathy dimension scores also predicted severity of delinquency at a 5-7-year prospective follow-up, with statistical control of age, baseline externalizing diagnoses and symptoms, and baseline objective observations of antisocial behavior. Predictions held when overt behavioral items from the CCQ, which may have overlapped with the delinquency outcome criterion, were eliminated. Despite these strong effects, a plethora of false positives were evident in the prospective predictions to delinquency status. We discuss research and clinical implications of measuring psychopathic traits in childhood.     

The Role of Rape Myth Acceptance and Psychopathy in Sexual Assault Perpetration

Perpetrators of sexual aggression consistently report higher scores on measures of psychopathy and acceptance of rape myths relative to nonperpetrators. However, less is known about psychopathy among nonincarcerated individuals and the relation between the two constructs has not been empirically examined among college perpetrators. To address this gap, both constructs were measured in a sample (N?=?308) of college men. Rape myth acceptance was positively correlated with psychopathy, and perpetrators scored higher on both constructs. Myths transferring responsibility to victims were related to Factor 1 psychopathy (i.e., callous and manipulative traits). The myth that “rape is trivial” was associated with Factor 1 and Factor 2 (i.e., impulsive and antisocial behavior), possibly suggesting that this myth is related to a larger tendency to excuse aggressive behavior. Although both constructs distinguished perpetrators when considered individually, rape myth acceptance did not explain unique variance in the presence of psychopathy.