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1.
Over the last years several European patents were opposed for protecting technology violating the morality requirement under
Article 53(a) EPC. Attempts have been made by the Appeal Boards of the European Patent Office (EPO), as well as by amendments
introduced into the Implementing Regulations of the European Patent Convention (EPC), to address this sensitive patentability
requirement more precisely. The most recent hot topic coming up in this context is the patentability of stem cells. It is
to be expected that this discussion will still go on in the field of biotechnological inventions for the next several years.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “The Ethics of Intellectual Property Rights
and Patents,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 23–24 April, 2004. 相似文献
2.
This paper elaborates on discussions in Germany regarding some of the ethical and legal issues in the area of the use and
patenting of inventions involving human tissue. The issues discussed pertain to the benefits and problems regarding informed
consent and the issue of property rights as they relate to the donation of cells and tissue.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “The Ethics of Intellectual Property Rights
and Patents,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 23–24 April, 2004. 相似文献
3.
Nanotechnology — A new field of ethical inquiry? 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Grunwald A 《Science and engineering ethics》2005,11(2):187-201
Parallel to the public discussion on the benefits and risks of nanotechnology, a debate on the ethics of nanotechnology has
begun. It has been postulated that a new “nano-ethics” is necessary. In this debate, the — positive as well as negative —
visionary and speculative innovations which are brought into connection with nanotechnology stand in the foreground. In this
contribution, an attempt is made to discover new ethical aspects of nanotechnology in a more systematic manner than has been
the case. It turns out that there are hardly any completely new ethical aspects raised by nanotechnology. It is much rather
primarily a case of gradual shifts of emphasis and of relevance in questions which, in principle, are already known and which
give reason for ethical discussions on nanotechnology. In a certain manner, structurally novel ethical aspects arise through
the important role played by visions in the public discourse. New questions are also posed by the fact that previously separate
lines of ethical reflection converge in the field of nanotechnology. The proposal of an independent “nano-ethics”, however,
seems exaggerated. 相似文献
4.
Grunwald A 《Science and engineering ethics》2000,6(2):181-196
The role of ethics in technology development has been often questioned, especially in the early days of societal reflection
of technology. However, the situation has changed dramatically. Ethical consideration now is generally declared to be indispensable
in shaping technology in a socially acceptable and sustainable way. The expectations of ethics are large; often even a kind
of “New Ethics” is postulated. In the present paper an over-estimation of the role of ethics for technology development is
rejected. It is argued that ethical reflection is, indeed, indispensable in certain problem areas and situation types; but
there is, on the other hand, space for technology development free from the requirement for ethical reflection. The absence
of a requirement for ethical reflection, however, always has to be considered relative to some “morale provisoire” (provisional
morality) as an accepted normative framework within which technology development may occur without explicit ethical reflection.
If this framework, however, is doubted or is shown to be insufficient the situation changes completely. Ethical reflection
in this case becomes necessary, to consider this normative framework in order to offer modifications or supplements. 相似文献
5.
Spławiński J 《Science and engineering ethics》2005,11(1):71-74
In this presentation, principles of ethics are confronted with the desire of the inventor to make a profit. To this end the
presentation is focused on patent protection. Patents should guarantee the return of an inventor’s investment and profit and,
on the other side, ensure availability — by patent disclosure — of the invention for the society when the patent terminates.
Recent patent applications made by inventors are infringing this principle and societies are paying an unexpected price for
these practices. Patent claims are too broad and disclosures too poor. Extreme examples will be discussed.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “The Ethics of Intellectual Property Rights
and Patents,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 23–24 April, 2004. 相似文献
6.
Virbalis R 《Science and engineering ethics》2002,8(3):349-352
The current legal framework within the Lithuanian health system is described including a review of the physician’s autonomy,
rights and duties, and patients’ rights including the right to reimbursement. The role of ethical codes and the law are discussed.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at an International Conference on “Conflict of Interest and its Significance
in Science and Medicine” held in Warsaw, Poland on 5–6 April, 2002. 相似文献
7.
Shrader-Frechette K 《Science and engineering ethics》2005,11(1):137-149
Eighty percent of (commercial) genetically engineered seeds (GES) are designed only to resist herbicides. Letting farmers
use more chemicals, they cut labor costs. But developing nations say GES cause food shortages, unemployment, resistant weeds,
and extinction of native cultivars when “volunteers” drift nearby. While GES patents are reasonable, this paper argues many
patent policies are not. The paper surveys GE technology, outlines John Locke’s classic account of property rights, and argues
that current patent policies must be revised to take account of Lockean ethical constraints. After answering a key objection,
it provides concrete suggestions for implementing its ethical conclusions. 相似文献
8.
Peter Cane 《The Journal of Ethics》2006,10(1-2):21-51
The famous mid-20th century debate between Patrick Devlin and Herbert Hart about the relationship between law and morality
addressed the limits of the criminal law in the context of a proposal by the Wolfenden Committee to decriminalize male homosexual
activity in private. The original exchanges and subsequent contributions to the debate have been significantly constrained
by the terms in which the debate was framed: a focus on criminal law in general and sexual offences in particular; a preoccupation
with the so-called “harm principle,” a sharp delineation of the realms of law and morality, and a static conception of the
relationship between them. This article explores the limitations imposed by these various starting-points and argues for a
holistic and symbiotic understanding of the relationship between law and morality.
* Thanks to Tony Connolly, Leighton McDonald and Niki Lacey for penetrating and suggestive comments on previous versions. 相似文献
9.
Alireza Ahmadi 《Journal of Academic Ethics》2012,10(2):151-170
The present study aimed at investigating the status of cheating on exams in the Iranian EFL context. One hundred thirty two
university students were surveyed to this end. They were selected through convenient sampling. The results indicated that
cheating is quite common among the Iranian language students. The most important reasons for this behavior were found to be
“not being ready for the exam”, “difficulty of the exam”, “lack of time to study” and “careless and lenient instructors”.
The study also indicated that the most common methods of cheating are “talking to the adjacent individuals”, “copying from
others' test papers”, and “using gestures to get the answers from others”. It was also found that the student’s field of study,
academic level, and occupational status had a significant effect on cheating whereas gender and marital status had no effect
in this regard. Furthermore, it became clear that field of study and occupational status had a significant effect on students’
attitude toward cheating whereas gender, academic level and marital status had no effect. Finally, the study indicated that
age significantly correlated with cheating and attitude toward cheating. 相似文献
10.
Marc Vanheukelen 《Knowledge, Technology, and Policy》1995,8(3):34-42
Moving evaluation to the “best practice frontier” is a laborious task at any level of government. At the level of the European
Union, better budget performance is a shared responsibility of the main European institutions as well as of the individual
national and regional governments, while specific budgetary factors complicate matters further.
To increase the transparency of decision making at the Union level and of the value for money of the approximately 80 billion
ecus spent annually through the European budget, the Coucil, European parliament and the Commission have stepped up evaluation
efforts over the last few years.
Marc Vanheukelen, M.Sc. in economics, is Head of Sector “Budget Evaluation” in the Directorate General of Budgets in the European
Commission. Aside from evaluation methodology, his research interests include the economics of integration and public finance
federalism. This article reflects the views of the author and not necessarily those of the European Commission. 相似文献
11.
In Morals From Motives, Michael Slote defends an agent-based theory of right action according to which right acts are those that express virtuous
motives like benevolence or care. Critics have claimed that Slote’s view— and agent-based views more generally— cannot account
for several basic tenets of commonsense morality. In particular, the critics maintain that agent-based theories: (i) violate
the deontic axiom that “ought” implies “can”, (ii) cannot allow for a person’s doing the right thing for the wrong reason,
and (iii) do not yield clear verdicts in a number of cases involving “conflicting motives” and “motivational over-determination”.
In this paper I develop a new agent-based theory of right action designed to avoid the problems presented for Slote’s view.
This view makes morally right action a matter of expressing an optimal balance of virtue over vice and commands agents in
each situation to improve their degree of excellence to the greatest extent possible. 相似文献
12.
James BehuniakJr. 《Dao》2010,9(2):249-252
Certain discussions about “relativism” in the philosophy of Zhuangzi turn on the question of the morality of his dao 道. Some commentators, most notably Robert Eno, maintain that there is no ethical value whatsoever to Zhuangzi’s dao as presented in the Cook Ding episode and other “knack passages.” In this essay, it is argued that there is indeed a moral
dimension to Cook Ding’s dao. One way to recognize it is to explore the similarity between that dao and John Dewey’s notion of educational method. There are moral traits that Dewey can appeal to in recommending his method.
It is argued here that these traits represent the moral features of Cook Ding’s dao as well. 相似文献
13.
Puzyński S 《Science and engineering ethics》2004,10(1):135-142
The paper presents major ethical, legal and methodological problems related to the use of placebo in mental disorders, especially
in depression. It is pointed out that although authoritative groups of experts and numerous publications in the field of psychopharmacology
indicate advisability of the double blind design with placebo in clinical trials of antidepressants, in recent years there
have been more and more voices questioning legitimacy of this method. Objections of an ethical nature are raised, and reliability
of this approach is put into doubt from the methodological viewpoint. These issues are discussed in more detail in the paper.
Available alternative solutions should be implemented in psychotropic drug studies. The author shares these objections and
doubts of an ethical nature, and believes that the placebo procedure is not a necessity in clinical trials of antidepressants.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “Placebo: Its Action and Place in Health Research
Today,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 12–13 April, 2003. 相似文献
14.
Four studies explored candidate pathways underlying the invention of the “wheeled cart.” In Study 1, heuristics were abstracted
from subjects’ judgements of different precursor paths to the wheeled cart. In Studies 2 and 3, these heuristics were tested
for generality across different precursor paths. In Study 4, subjects ranked the order of incorporating parts into the wheeled
cart. While the studies cannot “prove” that the wheeled cart developed in one of the candidate ways, they show that interesting
and important heuristics of invention can be uncovered from subject’s judgements. Examining candidate paths to important inventions
is a method worthy of exploration. Together, the four studies indicate that important historical inventions might be examined
experimentally. Doing so yields potentially important invention heuristics. 相似文献
15.
Four studies explored candidate pathways underlying the invention of the “wheeled cart.” In Study 1, heuristics were abstracted
from subjects’ judgements of different precursor paths to the wheeled cart. In Studies 2 and 3, these heuristics were tested
for generality across different precursor paths. In Study 4, subjects ranked the order of incorporating parts into the wheeled
cart. While the studies cannot “prove” that the wheeled cart developed in one of the candidate ways, they show that interesting
and important heuristics of invention can be uncovered from subject’s judgements. Examining candidate paths to important inventions
is a method worthy of exploration. Together, the four studies indicate that important historical inventions might be examined
experimentally. Doing so yields potentially important invention heuristics. 相似文献
16.
17.
Emphasis in historiography of science is naturally placed on the discoveries and inventions which scientists make and generally
less on new methods of doing science, but sometimes the latter can he an important clue to help us understand the former.
For example, while we all acknowledge how great the contributions of Maxwell, Boltzmann, Planck, and Einstein were to physics
from roughly 1870 to 1920, we often overlook the significance of a methodological phrase which was popular during that same
period, namely, what in German was called “Bildtheorie” or in English “picture theory”. But even before we can properly study
its significance we have to know what the theory was, but even this presents problems, since the meaning changed. In fact,
this paper is an attempt not only to describe the history of that change from Maxwell to Wittgenstein but to study in particular
how Boltzmann’s conception of Bildtheorie seems to have been at least partly incorporated into the approach of Ludwig Wittgenstein.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
18.
Porzsolt F Schlotz-Gorton N Biller-Andorno N Thim A Meissner K Roeckl-Wiedmann I Herzberger B Ziegler R Gaus W Pöppe E 《Science and engineering ethics》2004,10(1):119-132
Using placebos in day-to-day practice is an ethical problem. This paper summarises the available epidemiological evidence
to support this difficult decision. Based on these data we propose to differentiate between placebo and “knowledge framing”.
While the use of placebo should be confined to experimental settings in clinical trials, knowledge framing — which is only
conceptually different from placebo — is a desired, expected and necessary component of any doctor-patient encounter. Examples
from daily practice demonstrate both, the need to investigate the effects of knowledge framing and its impact on ethical,
medical, economical and legal decisions.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “Placebo: Its Action and Place in Health Research
Today,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 12–13 April, 2003. 相似文献
19.
Hofmann B 《Science and engineering ethics》2003,9(3):343-352
The objective of this article is to investigate ethical aspects of technology through the moral term “paternalism”. The field
of investigation is medicine. The reason for this is twofold. Firstly, “paternalism” has gained moral relevance through modern
medicine, where physicians have been accused of behaving paternalistic and threatening patients’ autonomy. Secondly, medicine
is a brilliant area to scrutinise the evaluative aspects of technology. It is argued that paternalism is a morally relevant
term for the ethics of technology, but that its traditional conception is not adequate to address the challenges of modern
technology. A modification towards a “technological paternalism” is necessary. That is, “technological paternalism” is a fruitful
term in the ethics of technology. Moreover, it is suited to point out the deficiencies of the traditional concept of paternalism
and to reform and vitalise the conception of paternalism in ethics in order to handle the challenges of technology. 相似文献
20.
Robert E. McGinn 《Nanoethics》2010,4(2):115-128
Whether nanotechnology is ethically unique and “nanoethics” should be treated as a field in its own right remain important,
contested issues. This essay seeks to contribute to the debates on these issues by exploring several foundational questions
about the relationship of ethics and nanotechnology. Ethical issues related to nanotechnology exist and adoption of a defeasible
presumption that such issues amount to old ethical wine in new technological bottles appears justified. Such issues are not
engendered solely by intrinsic features of the nanotechnology field, but also by contingent features of the social contexts
in which work in the field unfolds. The sets of factors that engender ethical issues related to nanotechnology are combinations
of social-contextual and technical elements. While there do not appear to be any qualitatively new nanotechnology-related
ethical issues, nanotechnology is different, ethically, from other fields of technical inquiry in at least two ways. To avoid
diluting ethical concern about nanotechnology and revival of the noxious notions of autonomous technology and technological
determinism, thinking, writing, and speaking about ‘nanoethics’ should yield to thinking, writing, and speaking about ‘ethical
issues related to nanotechnology in society.’ Finally, nanotechnology practitioners should become familiar with the ethical
dimension of their work. 相似文献