Vector analysis in visual perception of rolling motion

Summary The well-known visual effect of seeing an isolated, point on the rim of a rolling wheel as moving in a cycloidal track was used for a study of visual vector analysis under non-redundant conditions.Under actual experimental conditions a mean difference of about 20% was found between the mathematically predicted and the perceptual vector analysis. A considerable interperson variation in deviation from the analysis was found. Some Ss showed a deviation of only a few per cent from the mathematically correct response.This investigation was made possible by grants from the Swedish Council for Social Science Research.     

Reliability and validity of gain scores considered graphically

The ordinary gain score, g, is defined as g = x2-x1, where x1 is the pretest score and x2 is the posttest score. The present study extends and refines previous research on the reliability and validity of gain scores. Using particular values as stated in the tables and graphs, the pre- and posttest reliabilities, pre- and posttest validities, ratios of pretest to posttest standard deviations, and correlations between the pretest and posttest were varied systematically to examine the effects of these parameter configurations on gain scores' reliability and validity. Results plotted graphically provide insight via visual interpretation not easily inferred using only values from a table. One interesting finding was that the reliability of a gain score can be at a maximum when the validity is at a minimum. Another is that a high correlation between pre- and posttest was beneficial to the validity of the gain score but detrimental to its reliability. By identifying the situations in which gain scores can be reliable and valid, findings inform researchers when gain scores should or should not be used.     

Does Church Attendance Really Increase Schooling?

This article shows that religiosity during adolescence has a significant effect on total number of years of schooling attained. It differs from previous research by focusing on church attendance rather than on denomination and by controlling more completely for the effects of omitted-variables bias. Any estimated correlation between church attendance and schooling without such controls may reflect unmeasured family, community, and individual characteristics. The size of the effect for individuals who attended church 52 weeks per year compared to individuals who do not attend at all is equivalent to over three years of parents' schooling . This finding implies that changes in church attendance, either due to exogenous changes in attitudes or as an indirect effect of government or other institutional activity, may have large spill-over effects on socioeconomic variables.     

The Adjustment of Drug Addicts as Measured by the Sentence Completion Test

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank was administered to fifty out-patients at a rehabilitation center for narcotic addicts. There were twenty male heroin users, twenty male pill users, and ten female heroin users. Interscorer, intrascorer, and split-half reliabilities were all high. It was found that a cutting score of adjustment of 135 correctly identified 80 per cent of the male heroin users, 90 per cent of the male pill users, and 100 per cent of the female heroin users.     

The reliability of speeded tests

Some methods are presented for estimating the reliability of a partially speeded test without the use of a parallel form. The effect of these formulas on some test data is illustrated. Whenever an odd-even reliability is computed it is probably desirable to use one of the formulas noted in Section 2 of this paper in addition to the usual Spearman-Brown correction. Since the formulas given here involve the mean and the standard deviation of the “number unattempted score,” a method is given in Section 4 for computing this mean and standard deviation from item analysis data. If the item analysis data are available, this method will save considerable time as compared with rescoring answer sheets.     

Some metrical issues with meta-analysis of therapy effects

Two metrical issues, both concerning the index of effect size used in meta-analyses of therapy effects, are discussed with reference to such analyses. The first issue refers to use of the standard deviation of change scores as a metrical unit, and the conclusion is that the standard deviation of unadjusted post-test scores should be used instead. The second issue concerns measurement errors, and it is argued that the metrical unit—irrespective of which kind of variability metric is chosen—should be corrected for such errors, hence expressing each therapy effect relative to an estimated true rather than observed unit. It is proposed that a set of metrical alternatives should be used in a meta-analysis, so that the analysis is performed for each alternative and the results are compared across the alternatives.     

Predicting school adjustment from motor abilities in kindergarten

The present study assessed the relations between basic motor abilities in kindergarten and scholastic, social, and emotional adaptation in the transition to formal schooling. Seventy‐one five‐year‐old kindergarten children were administered a battery of standard assessments of basic motor functions. A year later, children's adjustment to school was assessed via a series of questionnaires completed by the children and their class teachers. The results indicate that in addition to the already documented association between visual–motor integration and academic achievement, other motor functions show significant predictive value to both scholastic adaptation and social and emotional adjustment to school. The results further suggest a better prediction of scholastic adaptation and level of disruptive behaviour in school when using an aggregate measure of children's ability in various motor domains than when using assessments of singular motor functions. It is concluded that good motor ability may serve as a buffer to the normative challenges presented to children in the transition to school. In contrast, poor motor ability emerges as a vulnerability factor in the transition to formal schooling. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Note on use of extreme criterion groups in item discrimination analysis

The purpose of this note is to reconsider the Kelley-Cureton definition of optimal extreme groups for estimating item-criterion correlations. Optimal tail per cents are derived, using the criterion of minimum sampling variance of the tetrachoric correlation coefficient, and the findings are related to earlier work of Mosteller. It is shown that upper and lower 27 per cent groups yield the most precise estimate of the tetrachoric coefficient only when the population correlation is close to zero. When the population value is .4, extreme 20 per cent groups provide estimates with the smallest sampling error variance. It is further shown, however, that 27 per cent extremes yield highly efficient estimates. Thus no change is recommended in traditional item analysis procedures.     

Family–oriented treatment for people with alcohol problems in Ireland: a comparison of the effectiveness of residential and community–based programmes

Using a naturalistic design involving consecutive referrals self–selected for family–oriented treatment, forty–two participants from a residential programme and twenty–five participants from a community–based programme were assessed on a range of alcohol–use and psychosocial measures before treatment. A proportion of these cases were assessed after treatment and at six months'follow–up. At six months' follow–up 79 per cent of both the residential and community groups were either abstinent or drinking moderately. However, more members of the residential group (75 per cent) were abstinent at follow–up compared with the community group (36 per cent). In contrast, more members of the community group were moderate drinkers (43 per cent) at follow–up compared with the residential group (4 per cent). At six months' follow–up, compared with the community group, more members of the residential group showed a clinically significant reduction in recent negative consequences of drinking and psychological adjustment problems. Both groups made significant mean gains on indices of alcohol abuse and psychosocial adjustment but there were important intergroup differences. The residential group showed a greater mean reduction in recent negative consequences from drinking but the community group showed a greater mean reduction in the percentage of days' heavy drinking.     

Statistical significance and reliability of single-subtest and cluster deviation scores

Suppose one has a battery of K subtests and a composite for the battery is defined as the mean of the K standardized subtest scores. An individual's single-subtest deviation score is the difference between the individual's score on any single subtest and his composite score. A cluster deviation score is the difference between an examinee's average for a small set (cluster) of subtests and his composite. Formulas are given for the test of statistical significance of the individual's subtest or cluster deviation score and the internal consistency reliability of such deviation scores.     

The effects of universal pre-K on cognitive development

In this study of Oklahoma's universal pre-K program, the authors relied on a strict birthday eligibility criterion to compare "young" kindergarten children who just completed pre-K to "old" pre-K children just beginning pre-K. This regression-discontinuity design reduces the threat of selection bias. Their sample consisted of 1,567 pre-K children and 1,461 kindergarten children who had just completed pre-K. The authors estimated the impact of the pre-K treatment on Woodcock-Johnson Achievement test scores. The authors found test impacts of 3.00 points (0.79 of the standard deviation for the control group) for the Letter-Word Identification score, 1.86 points (0.64 of the standard deviation of the control group) for the Spelling score, and 1.94 points (0.38 of the standard deviation of the control group) for the Applied Problems score. Hispanic, Black, White, and Native American children all benefit from the program, as do children in diverse income brackets, as measured by school lunch eligibility status. The authors conclude that Oklahoma's universal pre-K program has succeeded in enhancing the school readiness of a diverse group of children.     

Use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic by children

Two studies are discussed in which children's use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic was considered. Study one is a modification of the classic multiplication task devised by Kahneman and Tversky (1974). Results indicate that children in grades 4, 6, 8 and adults are affected by the order of numbers provided in an addition task. In addition, younger children display the tendency to over adjust, yielding higher estimates. In the second study, third and fifth grade participants and adults were provided anchors and estimated the number of jellybeans in a glass container. A main effect for condition is indicated, with lower anchors leading to lower estimates. Results of both studies are consistent with the an anchoring and adjustment explanation.     

Use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic by children

Two studies are discussed in which children's use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic was considered. Study one is a modification of the classic multiplication task devised by Kahneman and Tversky (1974). Results indicate that children in grades 4, 6, 8 and adults are affected by the order of numbers provided in an addition task. In addition, younger children display the tendency to over adjust, yielding higher estimates. In the second study, third and fifth grade participants and adults were provided anchors and estimated the number of jellybeans in a glass container. A main effect for condition is indicated, with lower anchors leading to lower estimates. Results of both studies are consistent with the an anchoring and adjustment explanation.     

Salience of initial attitude,magnitude of incentive,and attitude change in a forced compliance paradigm

To examine the application of interpersonal simulation findings to cognitive dissonance and incentive theories of attitude change in the forced compliance paradigm, 60 Ss were paid 50 cents or $2.50 to write counterattitudinal essays with salient or nonsalient initial attitudes. Findings showed that the larger incentive yielded greater change for salient pretest attitudes but that the smaller incentive led to more change of nonsalient pretest attitudes. Measures of error in attitude recall and a correlational analysis between pretest, posttest, and recalled attitudes were also consistent with Bem's (1967) hypothesis of isomorphism between the attributions of Ss and observers. It is proposed that remaining simulation data reported in the cognitive dissonance/self-perception controversy may identify additional parameters of attitude changes in forced compliance experiments.     

Cognition and incident coronary heart disease in late midlife: The Whitehall II study

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether cognitive function in midlife predicts incident coronary heart disease (CHD), followed up over 6 years. Data on 5292 (28% women, mean age 55) individuals free from CHD at baseline were drawn from the British Whitehall II study. We used Cox regression to model the association between cognition and CHD in analyses adjusted for socio-demographic variables, cardiovascular risk factors and health behaviors. The results show a one standard deviation lower score on the “general” cognitive measure and measures of reasoning and vocabulary to be associated with elevated CHD risk. There was some evidence that these effects differed between high and low socioeconomic status (SES) groups with associations only seen in the low SES group. These results were not explained by threshold effects or by the different SES groups representing different parts of the cognitive test score distribution. Three other possible explanations of these results are discussed: sub clinical vascular disease drives the observed association but no effect is observed in the high SES group due to compensation provided by greater cognitive reserve, cognition is a marker of overall bodily integrity particularly in low-SES groups, and SES is a moderator of the association between cognition and CHD, because it marks a range of other risk factors.     

正念认知疗法对手机依赖大学生的干预效果*

使用SAS和MPAI量表从820名被试中筛选出60名被试随机分配到实验组和对照组进行实验研究。预期通过正念认知疗法对手机依赖进行干预以降低大学生手机依赖程度。结果发现:实验组被试在接受正念认知疗法为期4周8次的团体辅导训练后,手机依赖总分、失控性、戒断性和逃避性因子得分与对照组相比显著降低,正念水平显著提高。结果表明正念认知疗法对个体的手机依赖的干预效果明显。     

Neighborhood Social Context and Individual Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposures Associated with Child Cognitive Test Scores

Childhood cognitive and test-taking abilities have long-term implications for educational achievement and health, and may be influenced by household environmental exposures and neighborhood contexts. This study evaluates whether age 5 scores on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R, administered in English) are associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and neighborhood context variables including poverty, low educational attainment, low English language proficiency, and inadequate plumbing. The Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health enrolled African-American and Dominican-American New York City women during pregnancy, and conducted follow-up for subsequent childhood health outcomes including cognitive test scores. Individual outcomes were linked to data characterizing 1-km network buffers around prenatal addresses, home observations, interviews, and prenatal PAH exposure data from personal air monitors. Prenatal PAH exposure above the median predicted 3.5 point lower total WPPSI-R scores and 3.9 point lower verbal scores; the association was similar in magnitude across models with adjustments for neighborhood characteristics. Neighborhood-level low English proficiency was independently associated with 2.3 point lower mean total WPPSI-R score, 1.2 point lower verbal score, and 2.7 point lower performance score per standard deviation. Low neighborhood-level educational attainment was also associated with 2.0 point lower performance scores. In models examining effect modification, neighborhood associations were similar or diminished among the high PAH exposure group, as compared with the low PAH exposure group. Early life exposure to personal PAH exposure or selected neighborhood-level social contexts may predict lower cognitive test scores. However, these results may reflect limited geographic exposure variation and limited generalizability.     

Age,schooling and conditional reasoning

This study estimated the independent effects of age and schooling in grades 7–9 on scores obtained on invalid conditional and class syllogisms. The results, which point to a negative, albeit small, effect of out-of-school experience and to a sizeable positive effect of schooling, replicate previous findings in a different age range and support the counterintuitive hypothesis that accumulated daily experience with conditionals has a negative effect on the development of conditional reasoning, and that improved performance on invalid problems with age is entirely attributable to schooling. Contrary to most cognitive tasks, therefore, in which schooling operates in the same direction as out-of-school experience, in this case, schooling breaks daily-life interpretational habits, and therefore, is critical for development.     

流动儿童压力应对方式与抑郁感、社交焦虑的关系:一项追踪研究

为了探讨流动儿童压力应对方式与抑郁感、社交焦虑的变化特点及其动态关系,本研究通过整群抽样法从5所北京市公立学校和1所打工子弟学校选取1164名流动儿童,采用问卷调查的形式对其进行为期一年的追踪测查,追踪时回收有效数据680份.对前、后测均参加调查的680名被试的数据进行分析,结果发现:(1)经过一年的城市适应,流动儿童整体的积极应对增多,消极应对减少,抑郁感下降,但社交焦虑水平无明显变化;(2)流动儿童个体在压力应对、抑郁感、社交焦虑的发展上均表现出两极分化的现象,年龄越小、来京时间越短、低年级及女生流动儿童群体的发展趋势更为良好;(3)流动儿童压力应对方式与抑郁感、社交焦虑间存在相互作用的动态关系,前测压力应对方式、抑郁感、社交焦虑均能显著预测后测相应变量的水平,前后测压力应对方式对抑郁感、社交焦虑均有即时预测作用,而前测抑郁感和社交焦虑对后测压力应对方式有不同的延时性影响.     

Effect of forget instructions with and without the conditions for selective search*

A PA probe experiment was conducted to determine whether a mechanism other than selective search is involved in the Only effect of directed forgetting. To accomplish this, a small number of trials which tested all pairs in the list successively (“all” trials) were intermixed with the standard single-probe trials. On “single” trials, both pretest mechanisms and selective search may operate, but on “all” trials, selective search was eliminated. The analysis compared the Only effect and intrusion data under these two conditions and examined the fate of to-be-forgotten (TBF) recall on “all” trials. The evidence confirmed the major role of selective search in producing the Only effect. It was concluded that if a pretest mechanism was operative, it did not have the properties of a voluntary forgetting mechanism and it had only a small effect on the first half of the list.