Child Protection and Psychology Education in Australian Universities

Child maltreatment is a significant problem in Australia. Psychologists in a wide range of occupations play an important role in the identification and prevention of child abuse and neglect, the provision of interventions to children and families, and the development and conduct of research in related areas. Psychology graduates must be adequately prepared to work in this field; however, little is known about the extent to which child abuse and neglect related contents are taught in current university curricula. A purpose‐developed curriculum‐mapping survey was used to examine Australian undergraduate, fourth year, and postgraduate Australian Psychology Accreditation Council‐accredited programmes available in 2008. Results showed that students in the majority of programmes were exposed to child protection‐related content; however, the extent of exposure was limited. Three postgraduate units specifically addressed the prevention, identification, and response to child abuse and neglect. Course coordinators reported that child maltreatment content was mostly integrated into general units throughout the programme, typically within developmental psychology units in the undergraduate curriculum and in ethics, research, or professional issues units in the fourth year and postgraduate programmes. Results suggest the need for child protection content to be included in minimum national standards and accreditation guidelines for universities.     

Identifying Effective Components of Child Maltreatment Interventions: A Meta-analysis

There is a lack of knowledge about specific components that make interventions effective in preventing or reducing child maltreatment. The aim of the present meta-analysis was to increase this knowledge by summarizing findings on effects of interventions for child maltreatment and by examining potential moderators of this effect, such as intervention components and study characteristics. Identifying effective components is essential for developing or improving child maltreatment interventions. A literature search yielded 121 independent studies (N = 39,044) examining the effects of interventions for preventing or reducing child maltreatment. From these studies, 352 effect sizes were extracted. The overall effect size was significant and small in magnitude for both preventive interventions (d = 0.26, p < .001) and curative interventions (d = 0.36, p < .001). Cognitive behavioral therapy, home visitation, parent training, family-based/multisystemic, substance abuse, and combined interventions were effective in preventing and/or reducing child maltreatment. For preventive interventions, larger effect sizes were found for short-term interventions (0–6 months), interventions focusing on increasing self-confidence of parents, and interventions delivered by professionals only. Further, effect sizes of preventive interventions increased as follow-up duration increased, which may indicate a sleeper effect of preventive interventions. For curative interventions, larger effect sizes were found for interventions focusing on improving parenting skills and interventions providing social and/or emotional support. Interventions can be effective in preventing or reducing child maltreatment. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Multiple forms of child abuse and neglect: adult retrospective reports

There are few research reports of the experience of multiple forms of child abuse and neglect (multi-type maltreatment). A critical review is presented of 29 studies in which adult retrospective reports of more than one form of child maltreatment (sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect, or witnessing family violence) are assessed. Empirical investigations of the extent and impact of multi-type maltreatment are identified. Data on the relationship between the different forms of maltreatment and the adjustment problems associated with each type of maltreatment are critiqued. As well as using dichotomous measures of maltreatment, an important methodological problem was the failure of researchers to assess all child maltreatment types, the relationship between multi-type maltreatment and adjustment, and the role of variables influencing the occurrence or impact of maltreatment. Considerable overlap was found in the occurrence of maltreatment types. The compounding or interacting effects of experiencing multi-type maltreatment were ignored in many studies. Where an assessment was made of the specific impact of multi-type maltreatment, it was associated with greater impairment than single forms of abuse or neglect. A multi-dimensional approach to prevention and treatment of child abuse and neglect is required in which children's vulnerability to multi-type maltreatment is addressed.     

The Role of Parenting Programmes in the Prevention of Child Maltreatment

Child maltreatment is a major worldwide concern and continuing high rates of abuse demand action. This article examines the role of parenting programmes as a strategy to prevent child maltreatment in the population as a whole and also as a targeted intervention for parents who have abused, or are at risk of abusing, their children. We argue that a blend of universal and targeted interventions is needed to reduce the prevalence of child maltreatment. Parenting interventions that concurrently target positive parenting and effective child management skills, dysfunctional parental attributions, and increasing parents' capacity to regulate their emotions are particularly useful. A variant of the Triple P—Positive Parenting Program, known as Pathways Triple P, is discussed to illustrate the value of this approach. Contextual factors that need to be addressed in working with child protection cases are also discussed. The role of training and supervision is discussed in the context of disseminating evidence‐based parenting programmes, and future directions for research are presented.     

Child maltreatment as a global phenomenon: From trauma to prevention

Past studies have clearly showed the negative impact of neglect and abuse on child development at both the psychological and neurobiological levels. To date, many studies have focused on identifying risk and protective factors occurring at all levels of the ecology. However, more distal‐level variables, such as culture and ethnicity, have not been studied as much as those of more proximal levels; yet studies in Western countries have consistently found an overrepresentation of child maltreatment reports among ethnic minority groups. In this commentary, we reflect on a series of articles examining maltreatment from a crosscultural perspective and using samples of diverse countries. Taken together, studies in this special section document the terrible fact that maltreatment is a global phenomenon. Through a summary of these studies’ main findings and concerns, we highlight four key points that we believe are important to consider for future research and intervention efforts.     

Child Maltreatment in DSM‐5 and ICD‐11

Child maltreatment is widespread and has a tremendous impact on child victims and their families. Over the past decade, definitions of child maltreatment have been developed that are operationalized, face valid, and can be reliably applied in clinical settings. These definitions have informed the revised Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and are being considered for the International Classification of Disease–11 (World Health Organization). Now that these definitions are available in major diagnostic systems, primary healthcare providers and clinicians who see children and families are poised to help screen for, identify, prevent, and treat child maltreatment. This article reviews the definitions of maltreatment in these diagnostic systems, along with assessment and screening tools, and empirically supported prevention and intervention approaches.     

A North American perspective on the psychological maltreatment of children

Psychological maltreatment may be the most common form of abuse suffered by North American children within the family environment. However, little effort has been directed towards eliminating and preventing it. The present article emphasizes the importance of thoroughly understanding the phenomenon so that effective intervention strategies can be developed. North American research studies of child maltreatment are reviewed and discussed with particular emphasis placed upon the manifestations of psychological maltreatment, the scope and the consequences of the problem, and the identification of associated risk factors. The paper identifies several areas for improvement before successful interventions can be conceptualized.     

Permanent Housing for Child Welfare‐Involved Families: Impact on Child Maltreatment Overview

A longitudinal randomized controlled trial tested whether access to permanent housing reduces child maltreatment among inadequately housed families under investigation for child abuse and neglect. The study followed homeless and child welfare‐involved families randomly assigned to receive a referral for housing subsidies plus housing case management (n = 75, 196 children) or housing case management alone (n = 75, 186 children). Latent growth models examined change in caregiver‐reported frequencies of psychological aggression, physical abuse, and neglect toward children at five time points across 2.5 years. Intent‐to‐treat analyses suggested treatment differences for minor assault and neglect that approached significance; families randomly assigned to permanent housing plus case management exhibited marginally greater declines compared to families referred for housing case management only. Caregiver psychological aggression remained high over time, regardless of treatment condition. No evidence indicated higher risk families benefitted more from permanent housing. Results show some promise of permanent housing and highlight the complex needs of homeless families under investigation for child maltreatment. Findings emphasize the importance of continued involvement from the child welfare system to connect families with important resources.     

Critical Issues in the Assessment of Child Sexual Abuse

This article explores the feasibility of using standardized psychometric methods in the initial stages of an investigation of child sexual abuse; methods that are less intrusive and therefore less damaging to children and their families. We review the complex conceptual and research issues that arise from attempts to assess the many-sided aspects of child sexual maltreatment. Among those considered in both the clinical and research spheres are problems of definition and diagnosis; limitations of clinical interviews, and a variety of direct and indirect psychological instruments used for investigating sexual maltreatment and risk assessment; the inadequacies of experimental designs; and also the political, practical, and ethical restraints that hinder research in this area. It is argued that there is insufficient evidence based on controlled studies or standardized normative tests to advocate any simple, unidimensional methodology for the screening task. However, recommendations are put forward for the cautious, conjoint use of several procedures in a multidimensional approach to assessing child sexual abuse. Suggestions are also made for future research and development.     

The welcome baby program: A community-based volunteer prevention model of caring,sharing, and support for new parents

Primary prevention is one of the most important components of any community child abuse and neglect program. Welcome Baby is a community-based, volunteer primary prevention program that offers caring, sharing, and support to parents of newborns through hospital visitation and follow-up contacts during the adjustment period that surrounds the birth of a baby. Program goals include personal support for the new mother, prevention of child abuse and neglect by providing support and information for all parents, reinforcement of strengths and support for quality parenting, improving emotional preparation for parenthood, and early identification and intervention for families with the potential for maltreatment. Program rationale and conclusions agree with research findings that early and consistent support and intervention with high-risk families improve the quality of parent-child interaction and significantly reduce the risk of maltreatment. This article outlines the basic philosophy, goals, and operations of this community prevention program.     

Brief Parenting Interventions for Children at Risk of Externalizing Behavior Problems: A Systematic Review

We systematically reviewed the evidence for the efficacy and effectiveness of brief parenting interventions, defined as <8 sessions in duration, in reducing child externalizing behaviors. While there is significant evidence to support the efficacy of parenting interventions of 8–12 sessions in duration, the public health benefit of these interventions is limited by low participation rates, high attrition rates and the lack of implementation by a wide range of practitioners. Brief parenting interventions have the potential to extend the reach and impact of parenting interventions and steer children away from a trajectory of life course persistent behavior problems. A search of four electronic databases was undertaken to identify RCTs conducted on brief parenting interventions. The primary outcome was child externalizing behaviors and secondary outcomes included parenting skills, parental self-efficacy, parental mental health and partner relationship functioning. The heterogeneity of included studies prevented a meta-analysis but characteristics of the studies were described. Nine papers summarising the results of eight studies with 836 families in five countries met inclusion criteria. All studies found significant improvements in parent-rated child externalizing behaviors, parenting skills and parenting self-efficacy, relative to control or comparison groups, with findings maintained at follow-up. Less consistent findings emerged for parental mental health and partner relationship functioning. This review provides initial evidence that brief parenting interventions may be sufficient to reduce child externalizing behavior problems for some families, however further research is needed.     

Intervention in child neglect: an applied behavioral perspective

Child maltreatment in the forms of abuse and neglect is a serious social problem, affecting over 1.5 million children in the US annually. Abuse has generally received more public and professional attention than other forms of child maltreatment. Given that more than one type of child maltreatment frequently occurs in families, there are few behavioral studies that have specifically addressed techniques for the reduction of child neglect. Only recently have researchers begun to regard child neglect as a phenomenon that may be conceptually different from other forms of child maltreatment, thereby warranting specific attention. Described here are intervention strategies for parents at-risk for or referred for child neglect. We review these strategies, along with commentary on the difficulties of conducting applied research in this field. Suggestions are offered for improved intervention research in child neglect.     

Heterogeneity in Maltreated and Non‐maltreated Preschool Children's Inhibitory Control: The Interplay Between Parenting Quality and Child Temperament

This study examined the contribution of child temperament, parenting, and their interaction on inhibitory control development in a sample of maltreated and non‐maltreated preschool children. One hundred and eighteen mother–child dyads were drawn from predominantly low‐income, rural communities. Dyads participated in a laboratory session in which maternal warm autonomy support, warm guidance, and strict/hostile control were observationally coded during a joint teaching task. Independent assessments of children's inhibitory control were obtained, and observers rated children's temperament. After relevant covariates, including income, maternal education, and child age and IQ were controlled for, there were no differences between the maltreatment and non‐maltreatment groups in either children's inhibitory control or mothers' behaviours in the laboratory session. Even after much of the variance in children's inhibitory control was accounted for from the covariates, children's temperamental negativity moderated the effects of warm autonomy support on inhibitory control in both maltreatment and non‐maltreatment groups. Temperamentally negative children whose mothers displayed more warm autonomy support showed greater inhibitory control, at levels on par with low‐negative children. Findings suggest that heterogeneity in children's self‐regulation may be due in part to individual differences in sensitivity to caregiver support for children's independence, even among those exposed to maltreatment. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quantifying Supervisory Decision Making: Eye‐Tracking Technology Applications for the Promotion of Child Safety

Previous research has investigated various risk factors correlated with childhood injury, but few studies have successfully investigated these variables beyond participant self‐report. The present study utilized infrared eye‐tracking and computer‐based latency measures to evaluate caregiver supervision decisions in injury risk situations for typically developing children and children with autism spectrum disorder. The sample included 99 young women, ages 18–24 years, who are frequent non‐parental caregivers for children. Results indicated that participants altered their speed of response, child monitoring, and intervention decisions on the basis of idiosyncratic assessment of injury risk. Minimal significant differences emerged with regard to supervision behavior and chosen strategies when comparing children with autism spectrum disorder to typically developing children. Overall, results suggest that non‐parental caregivers integrate child characteristics and environmental risk factors when assessing risk and choosing interventions. Implications are discussed with regard to injury prevention programs emphasizing protective aspects of supervision for children across various settings. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Where do we go from here? Moving toward an integrated approach to family violence

This article discusses patterns across reviews of the risk and protective factors for each of seven forms of family violence: partner physical, psychological, and sexual abuse; child physical, psychological, and sexual abuse and child neglect. We note that both child and partner literatures have large research bases on risk factors for physical abuse, but relatively few articles on psychological or sexual abuse (or child neglect). In addition, co-occurrence of forms of maltreatment within families is high, but little integrative work has been conducted. We argue that the overlap of both occurrence and risk factors across forms of maltreatment suggests that both etiological and intervention models would be improved by considering all forms of maltreatment more explicitly in a family (rather than dyadic) context.     

The Cultural Adaptation of a Community‐Based Child Maltreatment Prevention Initiative

A unique primary prevention effort, Strong Communities for Children (Strong Communities), focuses on changing attitudes and expectations regarding communities' collective responsibilities for the safety of children. Findings from a 6‐year pilot of the initiative in South Carolina have shown promise in reducing child maltreatment, but efforts to adapt the initiative to different cultural contexts have been lacking. No models exist for adapting an initiative that takes a community‐level approach to ensuring children's safety. Thus, this article addresses the gap by providing an overview of the original initiative, how the initiative was adapted to the Israeli context, and lessons learned from the experience. Building on conceptualizations of cultural adaptation by Castro et al. (Prevention Science, 5, 2004, 41) and Resnicow et al. (Ethnicity and Disease, 9, 1999, 11), sources of nonfit (i.e., sociodemographic traits, political conflict, government services, and the presence and role of community organizations) were identified and deep and surface structure modifications were made to the content and delivery. Ultimately, this article describes the adaption and dissemination of a community‐based child maltreatment prevention initiative in Tel Aviv, Israel, and addresses researchers' calls for more publications describing the adaptation of interventions and the procedures that need to be implemented to achieve cultural relevance.     

The Relationships among Childhood Maltreatment,Emotion Regulation,and Sexual Risk Taking in Men from Urban STD Clinics

This study sought to examine the relationships among emotion regulation difficulties, childhood maltreatment, and risky sexual behavior in a sample of 320 heterosexual men recruited from urban sexually transmitted disease clinics. Overall childhood maltreatment and several specific types of child abuse were significantly associated with emotion dysregulation, number of sexual partners, and sexually transmitted infection (STI) diagnosis. There was evidence of an additive effect of multiple forms of maltreatment on difficulties with emotion regulation and sexual risk taking. Impulse control difficulties and access to emotion regulation strategies, two components of emotion dysregulation, were related to measures of risky sexual behavior. Furthermore, limited access to emotion regulation strategies mediated the relationship between frequency of childhood sexual abuse and a greater number of lifetime sexual partners. This study has important implications for developing effective interventions to reduce the spread of STIs and HIV by expanding affect regulation and distress tolerance strategies among men who have experienced childhood maltreatment.     

Externalizing problems and problematic sexual behaviors: same etiology?

The study sought to determine whether maltreatment subtypes, family sexuality, and personal characteristics predicted and distinguished child problematic sexual behaviors (PSB) and externalizing problems (EP). Participants were families of 188 children, 6–11 years old, referred by child welfare services in four Quebec districts. Caregivers completed interviews and questionnaires. Results suggested that family environment and maltreatment subtypes had partially different impacts on PSB and EP. When EP and gender were controlled, younger children in a sexualized family environment and those verbally victimized were more likely to exhibit PSB. When PSB and gender were controlled, verbal abuse and neglect emerged as predictors of EP. Potential implications for child PSB research and interventions are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 36:358–370, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Pedagogical strategies for teaching literacy to ESL immigrant students: A meta‐analysis

Background. Many countries rely on immigrants for population growth and to maintain a skilled workforce. However, many such immigrants face literacy‐related barriers to success in education and in the labour force. Aims. This meta‐analysis reviews experimental and quasi‐experimental studies to examine strategies for teaching English literacy to immigrant students. Method. Following an exhaustive and systematic search for studies meeting pre‐determined inclusion criteria, two researchers independently extracted data from 26 English as a Second Language (ESL) studies involving 3,150 participants. These participants consisted of ESL immigrant students in kindergarten through grade 6 who were exposed to English literacy instructional interventions. Measured outcomes were reading and writing. Results and Conclusions. Mean effect sizes vary from small to large, depending on instructional interventions and outcome constructs. Across several different grade levels, settings, and methodological features, pedagogical strategies used in teaching ESL to immigrant students are associated with increased competence in reading and writing. Collaborative reading interventions, in which peers engage in oral interaction and cooperatively negotiate meaning and a shared understanding of texts, produced larger effects than systematic phonics instruction and multimedia‐assisted reading interventions. The results show that the pedagogical strategies examined in this meta‐analysis produced statistically significant benefits for students in all grade levels. The findings also show that students from low socio‐economic status (SES) background benefit from ESL literacy interventions. However, significant heterogeneity was found in each subset. Educators and policy makers are encouraged to consider specific school contexts when making decisions about optimal pedagogical strategies. It is possible that contextual factors as well as ESL learner characteristics may influence the effectiveness of these strategies. To ensure literacy acquisition for immigrant students whose primary language is not English, it is important to continue to research successful literacy practices in ways that better inform educators and policy makers.