Examining Subtypes of Behavior Problems among 3-Year-Old Children,Part II: Investigating Differences in Parent Psychopathology,Couple Conflict,and Other Family Stressors

This study examined family stressors among 3-year-old children who were classified as hyperactive (HYP), hyperactive and oppositional defiant (HYP/OD), and non-problem based on mothers' reports of behavior. Children with HYP/OD were found to experience higher levels of family stressors than non-problem children on almost every family stressor variable. Compared to children with HYP, families of children with HYP/OD also tended to report more Axis II maternal psychopathology, Axis I paternal psychopathology, and high intensity couple conflict tactics. However, the HYP and HYP/OD group did not significantly differ on maternal Axis I psychopathology, paternal Axis II psychopathology, parental marital status, negative life events, frequency of couple conflict, or use of lower intensity couple conflict tactics. Parents of children with HYP and HYP/OD reported more negative life events, more maternal adult ADHD symptoms, and more maternal avoidance and verbal aggression during marital conflict than parents of non-problem children. Implications for treatment and etiology are discussed.     

Examining Subtypes of Behavior Problems Among 3-Year-Old Children,Part I: Investigating Validity of Subtypes and Biological Risk-Factors

This study examined 3-year-old children who were classified as hyperactive (HYP), oppositional-defiant (OD), hyperactive and oppositional defiant (HYP/OD), and non-problem based on mothers' reports of behavior. Using fathers,' teachers,' and observers' ratings of children's behavior, concurrent validity was excellent for the HYP/OD group, moderate for the HYP group, and poor for the OD group. As predicted, both the HYP/OD and HYP groups reported more prenatal/perinatal birth complications and a greater family history of hyperactivity than did non-problem children. Furthermore, the HYP/OD group showed a greater family history of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms than did non-problem children; however, the HYP group also showed a greater family history of ODD than did non-problem children. Results suggest that as early as age 3, these behavior subtypes appear to be linked to biologically-based risk-factors in ways that are consistent with theories of the development of ADHD.     

Validity of the parenting scale for parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The present study examined the validity of the parenting scale for parents of elementary school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Parents from 109 families with children who had been diagnosed with ADHD (106 mothers and 93 fathers) and from 70 families with non-problem children (69 mothers and 59 fathers) completed the parenting scale and reported on their children's behavior problems. Factor analyses revealed two interpretable factors for both mothers and fathers, corresponding to the overreactivity and laxness factors identified in previous studies of the parenting scale. Overreactivity and laxness scores were significantly higher for mothers and fathers of ADHD children than of non-ADHD children; this effect appeared to be accounted for by comorbid aggression and conduct problems among ADHD children. Results support the validity of the parenting scale for use with parents of ADHD children.     

Parental Overprotection,Perceived Child Vulnerability,and Parenting Stress: A Cross-Illness Comparison

The current study sought to investigate differences in parenting capacity variables across four disease groups. Parents (N = 425), the majority of whom were mothers, of children with either cancer, asthma, Type 1 diabetes, or cystic fibrosis, completed measures of parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress. After controlling for significant demographic variables, parents of children with cystic fibrosis and asthma reported higher perceived child vulnerability than parents of children with either diabetes or cancer, while parents of children with asthma and diabetes reported higher parenting stress than parents of children with cancer or cystic fibrosis. No differences between disease groups were found for parental overprotection. The current study provides support for an illness-specific approach to understanding parenting capacity variables in the context of childhood chronic illnesses.     

Neuropsychological abilities of preschool-aged children who display hyperactivity and/or oppositional-defiant behavior problems.

This study focused on gaining a better understanding of the neuropsychological abilities of preschool-aged children who show elevated levels of hyperactivity and oppositional-defiance. It examined the performance of children aged 48 to 67 months on tests of attention/executive function, language, memory, and sensorimotor abilities, as measured by the NEPSY and Conners' K-CPT. Two hundred thirty-seven children were divided into four subgroups based on mothers' report of behavior using rating scales and a diagnostic interview: hyperactive only (HYP), oppositional-defiant only (OD), hyperactive and oppositional-defiant (HYP/OD), and nonproblem. Children in the HYP/OD group scored significantly worse than nonproblem children on four of nine subtests on the NEPSY, including one test of executive function, one test of language comprehension, and both tests of short-term verbal memory. However, only the test of executive function (Statue) showed significant predictive power, and, while specificity of this subtest was good, sensitivity was poor. On the K-CPT, a continuous performance test, children in both the HYP and HYP/OD groups performed worse than children in the OD and nonproblem groups. When the NEPSY Statue subtest and the K-CPT were used together, overall predictive power was .74. Results suggest that neuropsychological deficits can be observed among preschool children with hyperactivity, particularly when comorbid oppositional-defiance is present; however, moderate predictive power suggests that these tests should be used in conjunction with other methods of assessment.     

Neuropsychological Abilities of Preschool-Aged Children Who Display Hyperactivity and/or Oppositional-Defiant Behavior Problems

This study focused on gaining a better understanding of the neuropsychological abilities of preschool-aged children who show elevated levels of hyperactivity and oppositional-defiance. It examined the performance of children aged 48 to 67 months on tests of attention/executive function, language, memory, and sensorimotor abilities, as measured by the NEPSY and Conners' K-CPT. Two hundred thirty-seven children were divided into four subgroups based on mothers' report of behavior using rating scales and a diagnostic interview: hyperactive only (HYP), oppositional-defiant only (OD), hyperactive and oppositional-defiant (HYP/OD), and nonproblem. Children in the HYP/OD group scored significantly worse than nonproblem children on four of nine subtests on the NEPSY, including one test of executive function, one test of language comprehension, and both tests of short-term verbal memory. However, only the test of executive function (Statue) showed significant predictive power, and, while specificity of this subtest was good, sensitivity was poor. On the K-CPT, a continuous performance test, children in both the HYP and HYP/OD groups performed worse than children in the OD and nonproblem groups. When the NEPSY Statue subtest and the K-CPT were used together, overall predictive power was .74. Results suggest that neuropsychological deficits can be observed among preschool children with hyperactivity, particularly when comorbid oppositional-defiance is present; however, moderate predictive power suggests that these tests should be used in conjunction with other methods of assessment.     

Stress in Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities

Both low parental IQ and stress have been shown to be associated with parenting difficulties and adverse child outcomes. We examined stress in parents with low IQ as a potential contributor to their documented parenting problems. Eighty-two mothers with intellectual disabilities (IQ < 80; labelled as having mental retardation) were given the Parenting Stress Index and they were found to be enduring very high levels of overall stress (95th percentile), stress related to child characteristics (95th percentile), and stress related to other life experiences (90th percentile) as compared to the normative test group. We divided the 82 mothers with intellectual disabilities into three groups depending on the age of their children. The mothers with school-age children reported significantly higher stress than parents of infant/toddler and preschool children. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that child age and living in a crowded environment were significant predictors of parenting stress. The results confirm that mothers with intellectual disabilities experience extreme stress that, together with other factors, may hinder adequate parenting.     

Parenting Stress, Social Support, and Depression for Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers: Impact on Child Development

Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher for African American and Latina adolescents compared to their White peers. African American and Latina adolescent mothers also experience more adversities than their White peers, such as higher rates of depression, school dropout, and economic disadvantage. Furthermore, children of adolescent mothers are at higher risk for adverse development. Parenting stress and social support can impact outcomes experienced by adolescent parents and their children. The present study examined the influence of adolescent mothers’ parenting stress and perceived social support on maternal depression at baseline (6 months after birth), and its impact on infant development 1 year later (18 months after birth). Participants were 180 adolescent mothers of African American or Latino/Hispanic descent. Results suggest that higher levels of parenting stress and less perceived social support were associated with higher levels of depression in the adolescent mothers at baseline. Higher levels of maternal depression were also associated with more developmental delays in infants 1 year post-baseline. Additionally, depression mediated the relationship between parenting stress and later child outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of examining parenting factors such as parenting stress, social support, and maternal depression in ethnic minority adolescent parents, and provide valuable information regarding unique risk and protective factors associated with positive maternal outcomes for ethnic minority adolescent parents and healthy development for their children.     

Parenting Disruptive Preschoolers: Experiences of Mothers and Fathers

This study examined parental functioning and interactions with young children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), with emphasis on differences between mothers and fathers in their responses to their child and in their unique contributions to the prediction of child disruptive behavior. Participants were 53 3- to 6-year olds with ODD who presented for treatment with two parents. Mothers reported more severe disruptive behavior and higher parenting stress than fathers. During parent-child interactions, mothers showed more responsiveness than fathers, even though children were more compliant during interactions with fathers. Regression analyses showed that fathers' parent-related stress was predictive of both mothers' and father's reports of disruptive child behavior; mothers' marital satisfaction was predictive of behavioral observations of child compliance with both mothers and fathers. This study revealed several important differences in the experiences of mothers versus fathers of disruptive children and indicates the importance of including the father in the child's assessment and treatment.     

3~5岁儿童母亲抚养压力类型特点及其影响因素

通过对6021名3~5岁儿童母亲抚养压力进行潜在剖面分析,探讨母亲抚养压力的类型特点及其影响因素.结果表明:(1)3~5岁儿童母亲的抚养压力可以分为五类:低压力型(22.31%,指来自儿童发展和自身承担母亲角色的压力均最低)、适度压力型(38.17%,指来自两方面的压力均处于平均水平)、高儿童侧面压力型(26.39%,指来自儿童发展的压力较高)、高家长侧面压力型(8.62%,指来自母亲角色的压力较高)和高综合压力型(4.52%,指来自两方面的压力均最高);(2)生育年龄和家庭收入较低的母亲更可能属于高儿童侧面压力型,对儿童期望较高的母亲更可能属于高家长侧面压力型;学历较低、夫妻关系较差的母亲更可能属于高儿童侧面、高家长侧面和高综合压力型.     

Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma: The Mediating Role of Parenting Styles on Toddlers' DSM-Related Symptoms

Although the intergenerational transmission of trauma has been well documented, the pathways by which trauma symptoms are passed between parents and children remain unclear. This study examined the mediating role of parenting styles in the transmission of maternal trauma to children. Participants were a sample of 105 mothers of toddlers (18–30 months old). Mothers who had experienced interpersonal trauma were more likely to have an authoritarian parenting style, including verbal hostility, physical coercion, and low nurturance. Verbal hostility especially predicted more prevalent and increasing toddler symptoms associated with affective, hyperactive, and oppositional defiant disorders. Thus, the verbal hostility component of authoritarian parenting could serve as a major intergenerational pathway between maternal trauma and early child symptoms.     

Parenting stress in parents of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and parents of children with learning disabilities

Parenting a child with ADHD can challenge parenting resources and coping. Increasingly, researchers are examining the relationship between the behavior of the child with ADHD and family functioning. While studies have shown inceased parenting stress in parents of children with ADHD, these studies have compared children with ADHD to non-disabled children. This study compares reports of parenting stress among mothers of children with ADHD, mothers of children with learning disabilities and mothers of non-referred children. Results showed that parenting stress was highest for mothers of children with ADHD. Increased parenting stress was associated with child characteristics and, in particular, with externalizing behavior problems.     

Relations between Parenting Stress,Parenting Style,and Child Executive Functioning for Children with ADHD or Autism

Relations among parenting stress, parenting style, and child executive functioning for children with disabilities are not easily teased apart. The current study explored these relations among 82 children and adolescents age 7–18: 21 with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 33 with autism spectrum disorder, and 28 typically developing. Results indicated that children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder or autism spectrum disorder had more executive functioning deficits, and their parents reported more parenting stress and a greater use of permissive parenting, compared to typically developing children. In general, increased parenting stress was associated with greater use of authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, as well as more problems with behavior regulation for children. Authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were associated with poorer child executive functioning. Child diagnostic group (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, typically developing) moderated relations between parent stress and child functioning, and between parenting style and child functioning. Implications for intervention with families of children with disabilities are discussed.     

Parenting Self‐Construals of Mothers With a Serious Mental Illness: Efficacy,Burden, and Personal Growth1

We explored parenting self‐construals among mothers with serious mental illness (n= 379). Mothers reported feeling moderately positively about themselves as parents, more efficacious than inefficacious, more positive than negative, more valued than disvalued; but also at least somewhat restricted and burdened by motherhood. Factor analyses revealed 3 parenting self‐construal factors: efficacious, burdened, and parenting as a personal growth experience. In hierarchical regression analyses, parenting self‐construal factors significantly added to prediction of parenting behaviors and attitudes (nurturance, explanatory parenting style, and parenting stress), once demographic, mental health history, and current social context variables (support, stress, and current mental health) were taken into account. Maternal parenting self‐efficacy increased (while self‐construal of parenting as a burden decreased) positive parenting style.     

Parenting stress and competence among mothers of young children with substance use disorders: The roles of trauma and reflective functioning

Posttraumatic stress symptoms are prominent in the lives of parents of young children with substance use disorders (SUD). Parenting experiences, particularly stress and competence, impact parenting behaviors and concomitant child growth and development. Factors that promote positive experiences of parenting, such as parental reflective functioning (PRF), and protect the mother and child from negative outcomes are crucial to understand to develop effective therapeutic interventions. The current US study analyzed baseline data from a parenting intervention evaluation to examine how length of substance misuse, PRF, and trauma symptoms were associated with parenting stress and parenting sense of competence among mothers in treatment for SUDs. Measures included the Addiction Severity Index, PTSD Symptom Scale-Self Report, Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire, Parenting Stress Index/Short Form, and Parenting Sense of Competence Scale. The sample included 54 predominantly White mothers with SUDs who had young children. Two multivariate regression analyses found that (1) lower parental reflective functioning and higher posttraumatic stress symptoms were associated with higher parenting stress, and (2) only higher posttraumatic stress symptoms were associated with lower levels of parenting sense of competence. Findings underscore the importance of addressing trauma symptoms and PRF when aiming to improve parenting experiences for women with an SUD.     

父母养育压力对儿童问题行为的影响:养育方式的中介作用

本追踪研究旨在考察父母养育压力对儿童问题行为的影响方式是否存在差异。被试为364名。6个月时, 父母报告各自的养育压力;24个月时, 父母报告各自的养育方式;48个月时, 父母分别报告儿童的问题行为。结果发现, 母亲养育压力可直接显著正向预测学前期儿童的外显问题行为;父亲的养育方式在其养育压力与学前期儿童的内隐和外显问题行为之间起到了完全中介作用。这表明, 母亲早期养育压力可直接影响学前期儿童的外显问题行为;而父亲养育压力完全通过其养育方式影响学前期儿童的内隐和外显问题行为, 且严厉起主要作用。     

Parenting Stress and Sexual Satisfaction Among First-Time Parents: A Dyadic Approach

The present paper reports on longitudinal associations between parenting stress and sexual satisfaction among 169 heterosexual couples in the first year after the birth of a first child. Actor Partner Interdependence Modeling (APIM) was used to model the effects of the mother’s and father’s parenting stress at 6 months after birth on sexual satisfaction at 1 year after birth. Based on social constructivist theory and scarcity theory, two hypotheses were posed: (a) mothers’ parenting stress will predict their own later sexual satisfaction whereas fathers’ parenting stress will not predict their own later sexual satisfaction (actor effects) and (b) mothers’ parenting stress will predict fathers’ later sexual satisfaction but fathers’ parenting stress will not predict mothers’ later sexual satisfaction (partner effects). On average, parents were only somewhat satisfied with their sex life. The first hypothesis was supported as greater parenting stress significantly predicted lower sexual satisfaction for mothers but not for fathers. The second hypothesis was also supported as mothers’ greater parenting stress significantly predicted less sexual satisfaction in fathers, whereas fathers’ parenting stress did not significantly predict mothers’ sexual satisfaction. We discuss how our results may be interpreted considering the social construction of gendered family roles.     

抚养困难与教养行为的关系及其调节因素

本研究考察了567名2-5岁幼儿母亲的抚养困难与教养行为的关系,并进一步探讨了在高抚养困难情景下母亲教养行为的可能调节因素.结果发现(1)幼儿母亲的抚养困难感受总分与其教养行为的各个侧面均有非常显著的相关,母亲抚养困难程度越高,则其敏感性、参与性、积极情感及对儿童发展的指导性均较低,而其对儿童的消极情感较多;(2)回归分析表明,来自儿童侧面的"积极强化缺乏"、"多动/注意分散"、"不良心境"与"过度要求"以及来自母亲侧面的"缺乏依恋"、"缺乏能力感"等方面的抚养困难是预测母亲教养行为的重要因素;(3)在母亲抚养困难较高的情况下,夫妻双方的受教育水平分别对母亲教养行为的一些侧面具有调节作用.     

Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group

Examined the hypothesis that distinct parenting practices may be associated with type and profile of a child's disruptive behavior problems (e.g., oppositional, aggressive, hyperactive). Parents of 631 behaviorally disruptive children described the extent to which they experienced warm and involved interactions with their children and the extent to which their discipline strategies were inconsistent and punitive and involved spanking and physical aggression. As expected from a developmental perspective, parenting practices that included punitive interactions were associated with elevated rates of all child disruptive behavior problems. Low levels of warm involvement were particularly characteristic of parents of children who showed elevated levels of oppositional behaviors. Physically aggressive parenting was linked more specifically with child aggression. In general, parenting practices contributed more to the prediction of oppositional and aggressive behavior problems than to hyperactive behavior problems, and parenting influences were fairly consistent across ethnic groups and sex.     

The Role of ADHD and Negative Emotional Lability in Predicting Changes in Parenting Daily Hassles

The present study examined the extent to which children’s negative emotional lability (measured via ecological momentary assessment—EMA) and ADHD diagnostic status predicted changes in the frequency of daily parenting hassles and the stress resulting from daily hassles at one-week follow-up when controlling for baseline parenting hassles. Parents of 84 children 8–12 years-old (47 with ADHD, 37 without ADHD) completed a measure of parenting daily hassles at baseline and follow-up and participated in EMA assessment protocol ratings of their child’s mood (3-times daily) for one week. Analyses of covariance indicated that parents of children with ADHD reported significantly greater frequency of daily parenting hassles and intensity of parenting stress resulting from daily hassles than parents of children without ADHD at baseline and follow-up. Hierarchical regression analyses suggested that children’s negative emotional lability was a significant predictor of the intensity of parenting stress resulting from daily hassles, but not the frequency of daily parenting hassles. There was also an interaction of ADHD diagnostic status and greater EMA-derived negative emotional lability in the prediction of the frequency of daily parenting hassles due to children’s challenging behaviors. Specifically, greater negative emotional lability predicted more frequent daily parenting hassles due to children’s challenging behaviors among parents of children without ADHD but not among parents of children with ADHD. Overall, this study suggests that children’s negative emotional lability is a significant predictor of aspects of daily parenting hassles across parents of children with and without ADHD.