Environmental,background, and psychological variables related to optimizing achievement and career motivation for high school girls

The purpose of the study was to investigate some environmental and psychological variables related to optimizing the achievement strivings of high school girls. It was hypothesized that environmental and psychological variables would have significant relationships to achievement strivings. The criterion variables were career motivation and achievement motivation. The predictor variables were: community support, early family socialization (environmental), self-esteem, risk preference, sex role orientation, and fear of success (psychological). Subjects were 10th-grade girls (N = 158) in a suburban midwestern high school district. Procedures involved group test administration involving 2 hr during the regular school day. Multiple regression analysis indicated that high achievement motivation and career choice were significantly associated with perceived support for achievement and career goals in the school and community environment (p < .01). Implications for increasing achievement and career motivation were discussed in relation to the requirements of the Education Amendments of 1972 and 1976 (Title IX).     

PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF AGE AND LIFE ROLES IN ADULT WOMEN

The association between age/family stage, career role, and personality traits was studied using a multivariate statistical approach. Young adult, midlife, and older women from four role groups—homemaker, married career, single career, and student—were compared on a number of personality measures including achievement motivation, affiliation, autonomy, cultural sex role characteristics, self esteem, and adjustment. While some of the expected group differences did not appear, some significant age and role differences were found. Older women showed less achievement motivation and had a greater need for affiliation than young adult and midlife women. Career women had a more internalized locus of control than homemakers and students. When age and role were considered together, the age-role groups were differentiated on autonomy, femininity, and adjustment. There were no differences between either age or role groups on measures of self-esteem, well-being, socialization, or other personality variables.     

Sex differences in achievement/career motivation of Iranian boys and girls

The relationships of early socialization, socioeconomic status (SES), religion, community discrimination, and community resources (all as possible predictor variables) to achievement/career motivation (the criterion variables) for 200 Iranian high school senior girls and boys were studied. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify how much variance was accounted for by each predictor variable. In addition, a discriminant function analysis based on four linear combinations of the predictors for high and low SES, and for males and females, was performed to identify the best and strongest predictors. Through content analysis of the projective protocols representing achievement motivation, no significant achieving imagery was found for these Iranian subjects. The measure did, however, provoke imagery indicative of the subjects' preoccupation with marriage and/or affiliation with the opposite sex. Consistent with research findings in the United States, Iranian females scored lower in career motivation and expressed less belief in sex discriminatory myths than did males. The upper SES subjects of both sexes showed a higher level of career aspiration, and perceived more community resources for their careers, than did the lower SES groups. Sex, SES, community discrimination, and heterosexual interest contributed more heavily than the other predictors in predicting the variance of career motivation. Possible implications of the results for improving Iranian women's achievement/career motivation are discussed. A need for a more cross-culturally appropriate measure of achievement motivation is suggested.This study was supported, in part, by the University of Illinois Center for International and Comparative Studies. The author is indebted to Drs. Martin L. Maehr and Helen S. Farmer of the University of Illinois for their direction and advice in conducting this study.     

Are training and transfer effects of working memory updating training modulated by achievement motivation?

Previous studies examining effects of working memory (WM) updating training revealed mixed results. One factor that might modulate training gains, and possibly also transfer of those gains to non-trained cognitive tasks, is achievement motivation. In the present Studies 1 and 2, students with either a high (HAM) or low (LAM) achievement motivation completed a 14-day visuospatial WM updating training program. In Study 2, the students also performed a set of tasks measuring other executive functions and fluid intelligence prior to and after training. In both studies, the HAM students displayed a larger training gain than the LAM students. Study 2 revealed that after training, both groups showed better performance on the near-transfer but not far-transfer tasks. Importantly, the differential training gain was not associated with better post-training performance for the HAM compared to the LAM students on any of the transfer tasks. These results are taken to support a modulatory role of achievement motivation on WM training benefits, but not on transfer of those benefits to other tasks. Possible reasons for the general improvement on the near-transfer tasks and the absence of a modulatory role of achievement motivation on transfer-task performance are discussed.     

中学生学业成就动机归因训练效果的追踪研究

研究用定性和定量相结合的研究方法,对13年前为初中生进行的成就动机训练效果进行了追踪研究。结果显示,与对照组相比,这些受训者在任务选择、行为强度和坚持性方面均表现出较高水平;成功期望较强烈;对成功或成就倾向于作能力、努力归因。这一结果表明,归因训练能够对人产生深远的影响,动机的改善具有长期效果。     

Ethnic socialization and the academic adjustment of adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds

Ethnic and generation differences in the frequency and types of ethnic socialization messages that 524 eleventh-grade adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds received from their parents were examined. Results indicated that adolescents from both Mexican and Chinese backgrounds reported more cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages than their peers from European backgrounds. Chinese adolescents reported more promotion of mistrust messages than their peers with European backgrounds. Moreover, promotion of mistrust messages negatively predicted academic achievement, whereas positive cultural socialization messages accounted for the higher levels of motivation among adolescents from Chinese and Mexican backgrounds as compared with their equally achieving peers from European backgrounds.     

Occupational Achievement Motivation as a Function of Biological Sex, Sex-Linked Personality, and Occupation Stereotype

Predicted sex differences in occupational achievement motivation based on the work of Horner (1968) and Stein, Pohly and Mueller (1971) were examined by administering questionnaires to 87 female and 91 male undergraduate psychology students. Subjects made six achievement related responses to twelve occupations which had been stereotyped by a separate group of subjects as being either high prestige masculine, middle prestige masculine, middle prestige feminine or middle prestige androgynous (appropriate for both sexes). Analyses of variance were performed on all achievement responses with subjects'sex, sex-linked personality (Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1974), and occupational stereotype as independent variables. Significant sex by occupation stereotype interactions were found on all six dependent measures supporting the Stein et al. prediction of highest achievement motivation toward sex appropriate occupations. The fact that females did not show significantly lower motivation than males toward high prestige masculine occupations is inconsistent with earlier findings. Sex-linked personality was related to some of the achievement measures but did not interact with either occupation stereotype or biological sex.     

Sex differences in achievement motivation

Abstract.— Norwegian undergraduate psychology students were given Heckhausen's TAT test of achievement motivation prior to or after final course examination. Women obtained higher mean score on Fear of Failure than men on both occasions. There was no sex difference in length of protocol, nor was this variable related to any of the motivation scores. Success in terms of examination results did not affect motivation scores, whereas failure led to higher score on Hope of Success for men but not for women.     

Influences of job type, job status, and gender on achievement motivation

This study explored two issues. First, the stereotype was explored that teachers are lower in intrinsic achievement motivation than those in other occupations; second, that job type, job status, and/or gender influence intrinsic achievement motivation. Job type was explored based on the stereotype of a high achievement motivation condition (banking) versus a low condition (teaching). Job status was examined as currently working versus retirement from the occupation. Gender referred to sex, male and female. Each of the eight cells of a 2x2x2 factorial design contained 15 subjects randomly drawn from population pools (N=264) screened for membership on specific age, years of employment, and years of retirement. Intrinsic achievement motivation was assessed by the four factors of the Helmreich and Spence (1974) Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire (WOFO). Data were analyzed for main and interaction effects using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). No support was found for the proposition that banking personnel are higher in motivation than teachers. On the second issue, gender and job status yielded statistically significant effects, suggesting that a person’s gender and whether he is working or retired both exert an influence upon his intrinsic achievement motivation.     

The Westermarck Effect and early childhood co‐socialization: Sex differences in inbreeding‐avoidance

The aim of this study was to determine whether there are sex differences in regard to the effect of early childhood co‐socialization on inbreeding‐avoidance at sexual maturity. Multiple logistic regression methodology was used to model the relationship between cousin relationship and social proximity in childhood and its effect on mate choice beyond adolescence for a sample of Moroccan participants. Females showed a synergistic interaction effect for cousin marriage and childhood co‐socialization and an additional interaction effect for co‐socialization during the first seven years of childhood. Male participants showed no significant effect for early childhood co‐socialization. The Westermarck Effect hypothesis that early childhood co‐socialization leads to a lack of sexual interest at maturity is thus supported for female participants but not for male participants. These results are consistent with expectations from parental investment theory that females should show greater inbreeding‐avoidance than males do because of the greater costs females suffer as a consequence of inbreeding depression.     

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE: ANALYZING THE VALIDITY OF THE WOFO

Spence and Helmreich developed the Work and Family Orientation (WOFO) Questionnaire as a multidimensional measure of achievement motivation and attitudes toward family and career because they believed that a unitary construct of achievement motivation was not sufficient to account for broad patterns of behavior in varied situations. This article reviews the evidence for the construct validity of the WOFO questionnaire based on data from a large group (N = 3, 727) of men and women with high educational and career aspirations. Evidence presented includes factor analysis of the WOFO subscale dimensions, subscale reliabilities, and an analysis of the effect of gender and masculinity-femininity on achievement motives. The research confirms new insights regarding the relationship between achievement motives and sex roles for women and men.     

小学生不同课堂情境的成就归因及再归因训练

在广泛调查的基础上,考察了小学生对不同课堂情境的成就归因特点;并运用韦纳的归因训练模式与策略指导相结合的方法,根据不同课堂的成就情境对小学生进行再归因训练。结果表明：小学生把课堂成就归因于努力、策略、能力、基础、兴趣、目的、难度。教法、心境和家境等１０个主要因素,这些因素除家境外,均在不同课堂的成就情境中存在显著的差异;韦纳的归因训练模式与策略指导相结合的再归因训练能有效地改变小学生对不同课堂情境的成就归因倾向,增强其学习动机水平,提高学业成绩。     

Psychological capital bolsters motivation,engagement, and achievement: Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

Psychological capital (PsyCap) has been widely investigated in the organizational context. However, limited attention has been given to the role of PsyCap in the academic setting. The primary objective of this study was to examine how PsyCap is associated with academic motivation, engagement, and achievement using both cross-sectional (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) approaches. Study 1 revealed that PsyCap was associated with higher autonomous motivation and controlled motivation even after controlling for relevant demographic variables. PsyCap was also associated with lower levels of amotivation. Study 2 showed that PsyCap was both a concurrent and prospective predictor of autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, academic engagement, and academic achievement even after controlling for their respective autoregressors and other relevant covariates. Mediational analyses indicated that the effects of T1 PsyCap on T2 achievement and T2 engagement were mediated by T2 autonomous motivation. The theoretical and practical implications are elucidated.     

Sex Bias in Educational-Vocational Counseling

Literature pertinent to sex discrimination in educational and vocational counseling is reviewed. Among the many factors that contribute to inequitable counseling are the sex role socialization that clients bring to the counseling interaction, the sex role attitudes and biases of counselors, deficiencies in counselor training, and shortcomings of tests and other source materials used in counseling practice. Recommendations are made toward more comprehensive counseling services for women and men.     

Distinguishing characteristics of the life roles of worker,student, and homemaker for young adults

The purpose of this study was to determine if three adult life roles could be distinguished by career and achievement motivation and antecedents to such motivation. Subjects were a sample of 212 young adults who had graduated 3 years prior to data collection from two high schools in the state of Illinois and were classified according to the three life roles of worker, student, and homemaker. Four indicators of career motivation, one indicator of achievement motivation, and a broad range of antecedent factors, including background characteristics, self-concept factors, and context factors, were used to distinguish among the life roles. Results from discriminant analyses on the three role groups indicate that in general students are distinguished from homemakers and workers on functions characterized by higher education and career aspirations, greater perceived support from parents for their achievement, and lower attributions of cooperation for achievements; homemakers are distinguished from students and workers on functions characterized by endorsing higher social approval values for their successes, lower career commitment, and lower perceived teacher support for achievement. Workers are distinguished from students on some factors and distinguished from homemakers on others. Implications for future research and practice indicate the usefulness of life roles when investigating the career and achievement patterns of young adults and designing interventions for the enhancement of life role choices.     

长沙市大学生成就动机取向特点的研究

本研究从大学生学校类型、年级、性别三个维度,探讨长沙市大学生成就动机取向的特点。从湖南省长沙市三所大学中(湖南师范大学、湖南大学、中南大学)随机抽取300名大学生,每个学校各100名作为研究对象。研究结果表明:(1)长沙市大学生的个我取向成就动机明显高于社会取向成就动机;(2)长沙市不同学校类型的大学生成就动机取向无明显差异;(3)不同年级大学生的成就动机取向无明显差异;(4)长沙市大学生成就动机取向的性别差异显著。     

Effects of differences in achievement motivation and amount of exposure on responses to uncontrollable rewards

Within a triadic experimental design, 80 subjects classified as high or low in achievement motivation were given either standard or extended exposure to uncontrollable rewards. Subjects high in achievement motivation displayed facilitation following standard training that was eliminated following extended training. While this conforms with Wortman and Brehm's model integrating reactance theory and learned helplessness theory, in general the results were more accurately described by predictions based on a modification of the theory of achievement motivation. Because the experimental procedure induced the perception of uncontrollability independently of perceived failure, the results were seen as extending the generality of the latter theory.     

教师自主支持与学生学业成就关系的元分析:心理需要满足、动机及投入的中介作用

在教育实践中,教师作为教学活动的主要引导者,他们的教学风格对学生的学业成就具有重要影响。根据自我决定理论,自主支持型教师能够满足学生的基本心理需要,促进学习动机内化,进而提高学业投入及学业成就。本研究通过对37篇教师自主支持与学生学业成就的实证研究(53个独立样本,18278名学生)进行元分析,结果发现:(1)教师自主支持显著正向预测需要满足、动机、投入及学业成就;同时自主支持对需要满足、动机及投入的效应量高于对学业成就的效应量;(2)学生的需要满足及动机在教师自主支持对学业成就影响中起中介作用,但学业投入的中介作用不显著;(3)教师自主支持对学业成就的影响在不同年龄、经济与文化背景下没有显著差异。综上,在未来的教育活动中,教师应给予学生更多的自主支持,以满足学生基本心理需要,激发学生的学习动机,促进学业投入,提升学业成就。     

西北地区小学生学习动机发展特点的研究

采用问卷调查法探讨了2～6年级小学生学习动机的发展特点.结果表明:小学生学习动机发展表现出由附属性动机→威信性动机→认知性动机→成就性动机的强度渐增特点,成就性动机处在较高位置.四类动机及其所含因素在年级、性别、城乡之间存在差异.研究提示,当前教育教学改革应关注学生学习动机问题,重视加强小学中高年级和农村学生学习动机的培养与激发.